>r 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0     ^BS  I 


I.I 


li!l= 


12.5 


S    U&    111112.0 


1.8 


1-25  i  1.4    III  1.6 


71 


vl 


^v 


V 


/A 


iF 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


^   inadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


1980 


Technical  Notes  /  Notes  techniques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Physical 
features  of  this  copy  which  may  alter  any  of  the 
images  in  the  reproduction  are  checked  below. 


D 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couvartures  de  couleur 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  6t6  possible  de  se  procurer.  Certains 
d6fauts  susceptibles  de  nuire  d  la  quality  de  la 
reproduction  sont  not6s  ci-dessous. 


D 


Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couleur 


D 


Coloured  maps/ 

Cartes  gdographiques  en  couleur 


D 


Coloured  plates/ 
Planches  en  couleur 


0 

D 


Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  ddcolordes,  tachetdes  ou  piqudes 


Tight  binding  (may  cause  shadows  or 
distortion  along  interior  margin)/ 
Reliure  serr6  ipeut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou 
de  la  distortion  le  long  de  la  marge 
intdrieure) 


D 


D 


Show  through/ 
Transparence 


Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagdes 


D 


Additional  comments/ 
Commentaires  suppl^mentaires 


Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  bibliographiques 


D 


Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 


D 


Pagination  incorrect/ 
Erreurs  de  pagination 


D 


Bound  with  other  material/ 
Reli6  avec  d'autres  documents 


n 


Pages  missing/ 
Des  pages  manquent 


D 


Cover  title  missing/ 

Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 


D 


Maps  missing/ 

Des  cartes  gdographiques  manquent 


D 


Plates  missing/ 

Des  planches  manquent 


D 


Additional  comments/ 
Commentaires  suppl6mentaires 


The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  «vith  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Les  images  suivantes  ont  6t6  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettetd  de  I'exemplaire  film6,  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche  shall 
contain  the  symbol  —►(meaning  CONTINUED"), 
or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"),  whichever 
applies. 


Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaltra  sur  la  der- 
nidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le  cas: 
le  symbols  — ►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le  symbole 
V  signifie  "FIN". 


The  original  copy  was  borrowed  from,  and 
filmed  with,  the  kind  consent  of  the  following 
institution: 

University  de  JVIontrial 


L'exemplaire  filmd  fut  reproduit  grdce  d  la 
gdndrositd  de  I'^tablissement  prdteur 
suivant  : 

University  de  Montreal 


Maps  or  plates  too  large  to  be  entirely  included 
in  one  exposure  are  filmed  beginning  in  the 
upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to  right  and  top  to 
bottom,  as  many  frames  as  required.  The 
following  diagrams  illustrate  the  method: 


Les  cartes  ou  les  planches  trop  grandes  pour  6tre 
reproduites  en  un  seul  cliche  sont  filmdes  d 
partir  de  Tangle  sup6rieure  gauche,  de  gauche  A 
droite  et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  ndcessaire.  Le  diagramme  suivant 
illustre  la  mdthode  : 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

THE 


DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 


A  STODY  OF  ANNEXATION. 


A  DISSERTATION  m  PABT  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMEim  FOIi  THE 

DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR    OP    PHILOSOPHY  IN  THE  SCHOOL  OF 

POLITICAL     SCIENCE,    COLUMBIA 

COLLEGE. 


BT 


WILLIAM    BENFORD    AITKEN,  M.  A. 


COL. 


11/ 


I  M.    ,    I 


li        "1    i     il. 


;"i',ii 


i»ni 


CONTENTS. 


I 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE. 

CHAPTER  I.-HISTORICAL. 

Competition  for  North  America 7 

The  f  ld  Regimes,  ...  -^ 

CHAPTER  II.-BTHNICAL. 

Race 

20 

Religion 

oO 

Education 

44 

CHAPTER  III.-GEOGRAPHICAL. 

Topography 

54 

Climate  and  Products.  . .  ra 

00 

CHAPTER  IV.^LEGAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL. 

Laws 

70 

Financial  and  Administrative  Institutions 72 

Communication  and  Commerce ^g 

CHAPTER  V.-POLITICAL. 

Constitution 

**   •••••       81 

Imperial  Federation 

* •    "-J 

Independence . . 

94 

Annexation 

******* •••••••••      ••••         0|f 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

104 


n 


INTRODUCTION. 


;■ 


At  a  time  when  so  much  is  said  about  independ- 
ence or  annexation  for  Canada,  and  national  pride 
declaims  a  great  deal  about  "manifest  destiny"  and 
the  glory  of  a  North  American  Republic,  it  may  be 
of  interest  to  examine  the  progress  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  and  the  relations  which  they  bear 
to  one  another  at  the  present  day. 

In  a  discussion  of  the  advisability  of  annexation 
no  attempt  will  be  made  to  assert  any  theories  as 
to  the  future,  but  those  brought  forward  by  indue, 
tion  through  the  historical,  comparative  and  statistical 
methods. 

Thus  the  reader  may  see  the  infli^ence  that  his- 
tory, the  principal  of  these  three  methods,  has  had 
upon  Canada's  people  and  present  political  situation. 
For  history  is  the  useful  instructor  of  nations  and 
its  lessons  derived  from  antiquity  are  of  inestimable 
value  to  the  modern  statesman.  Therefore  the  true 
historian  and  political  writer  endeavors  to  regard  the 
facts  and  events  that  present  themselves  to  his  know- 
ledge with  impartial  eyes,  accepting  neither  Catholic 
nor  Protestant  accounts  of  religious  or  political  move- 
ment without  due  allowance  for  prejudice,  and  aiming 
above  all  to  give  a  just  interpretation  of  all  con- 
flicting circumstances. 

The  method  by  comparison  will  enable  us  to  see 


"^ 


<6 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  difference  between  the  two  countries  and  observe 
what  traits  the  peoples  possess  in  common,  in  arts, 
manners  and  habits,  and  the  causes  that  have  been 
at  work  in  the  New  World  to  make  several  of  these 
traits  differ  in  va^ions  degrees. 

The  statistic  1  method,  though  often  of  less  in- 
terest, is  useful  in  obtaining  exact  facts  and  their 
deductions,  and  must  consequently  be  used  with  the 
^other  methods. 

In  treating  of  the  organization  of  a  state  we  must 
«ee  what  has  been  its  development  and  thus  fore- 
cast its  future.  The  state  must  be  regarded  as  a 
unity  embodying  in  itself  the  three  unities  of  people, 
territory  and  government. 

Therefore,  since  this  unity  in  its  larger  significa- 
tion is  represented  by  the  word  nation,  we  can  best 
determine  whether  it  is  advisable  to  make  one  great 
Republic  of  the  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  by  seeing  bow  far  the  two  countries  co-incide 
in  geographical,  ethnical  and  political  characters. 


THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA ; 


A  STUDY  OF  ANNEXATION. 


-w-w- 


CHAPTER  I.— HISTORICAL. 


COJrPETTTION    FOR   NORTH   AMERICA. 


Tbe  Englisli  King  Henry  VII.  had  experienced  a 
feeling  of  keen  regret  that  the  petition  of  Columbua 
had  been  refused  when  he  sought  aid  from  his  court. 
Therefore,  John  Cabot  and  his  son  Sebastian  were 
freely  given  a  patent  under  which  they  set  sail  with  a 
band  of  explorers,  and  on  the  24th  of  June,  1496,  came 
in  sight  of  land  which  Cabot  hoped  was  India,  but  he 
said :  "  I  found  that  the  land  ranne  toward  the  north, 
which  was  to  mee  a  great  displeasure."  ^  This  land 
was  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  Cabot  had  discovered 
the  American  continent. 

But  England's  right  to  the  northern  part  of  the 
continent  by  prior  discovery  was  not  valid  without 
actual  possession  and  occupation  ;  therefore,  when  the 
French  settled  the  country  a  few  years  after,  their 
title  by  occupancy  was  sustained  by  international 
law.  They  gave  the  name  Canada  to  the  country  in 
1506,  from  the  Indian  word  "  Kannatha,"  meaning  a 
collection  of  huts.  But  it  was  not  until  the  explor- 
ation of  John  Verrazzani,  in  1523,  that  the  French 
Government  encouraged  the  settlements  of  whale  and 
cod  fishermen  in  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia. 

1  "Lives  of  the  Admirals  "—Campbell.    Vol.  1.,  p.  338. 


8 


THE    DOMINIO^    OF   CANADA. 


The  discovery  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  by  Jaqiies 
Cartier  iu  1534,  and  the  favorable  report  which  he 
brought  back  of  the  beautiful  country  on  its  banks, 
induced  Francis  I.  to  grant  hira  a  commission  "  i)our  1' 
establissement  du  Canada,"  dated  October  17,  1540.* 
By  this  patent,  along  with  one  creatiLg  a  viceroy  or 
agent  of  the  King,  France  established  a  permanent 
though  miserable  settlement,  relying  for  its  sujiport 
upon  annuities  from  the  home  government,  and 
recruited  in  numbers  by  exiles  and  prisoners  from 
France.  The  city  of  Quebec  grew  up  about  1608  and 
became  prosperous  through  the  efforts  of  Samuel  de 
Champlain.     Montreal  was  settled  some  years  later. 

In  the  year  1627,  Cardinal  Richelieu  as  "  Superin- 
tendent-General of  the  Navigation  and  Commerce  of 
France,"*  succeeded  through  a  royal  edict  in  forming 
a  "Company  of  One  Hundred  Associates,"  of  merchants 
and  priests,  to  promote  colonization  and  Christianity  in 
Canada.  If  the  King  knew  what  he  was  bestowing 
he  was  exceedingly  liberal,  for  he  conveyed  the  soil  of 
Canada  with  the  monopoly  of  its  fur  trade  for  the 
simple  consideration  of  fealty  to  the  sovereign  and  a 
smsdl  amount  of  gold. 

Richelieu  and  Champlain,  "  If  pere  de  la  Nouvelle- 
France,"^  were  wise  enough  to  understand  that 
Frenchmen  were  not  suited  to  the  task  of  coloniz- 
ation, and  that  if  France  was  to  found  an  empire 
it  must  be  by  civilizing  the  Indians,  and  bringing 
them  under  her  rule.  From  this  time  it  became 
the  policy  of  France  to  bring  the  savages  under 
her  sway. 

The  settlers  in  Canada  traded  with  the  Indians  and 
"made  no  attempt  to  found  an  agricultural  state." 
They  penetrated  farther  and  farther  up  the  St.Lawrence 

1.  "  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France  "— I'Escarbot. 

a.  The  title  in  full  was,  "Chef  et  Superintendent  G6n6ral  de  la  Marine, 
Navigation  et  Commerce  de  France."  See  the  introduction  to  Ram  baud's 
"La  France  Coloniale."  , 

3.  "  Charlevoix's  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle-France." 


COMPETITION   FOR   NORTH   AMERICA. 


9 


Kiver,  until  at  length  Colbert  descended  the  Missis- 
si  j  i  River  in  1682  and  was  followed  by  hunters  and 
Jesuit  missionaries,  who  made  many  settlements. 
Thus  the  French  possessions  under  the  name  New 
France  included  not  only  Canada  but  that  lon^  strip  of 
territory  called  Illinois  and  Louisiana,  extending  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  rivers  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
to  the  highlands  west  of  the  ^'^•''sissippi. 

England  about  this  tiii  jegan  to  encourage 
emigration  by  granting  patents  f  lands  in  those  parts 
of  the  continent  which  she  claimed,  although  the  time 
for  colonization  did  not  come  until  the  conflicts  in  her 
govei'nment  were  settled  by  the  Reformation.  The 
erroneous  geographical  descriptions  in  these  patents  or 
charters  were  the  causes  of  many  of  the  subsequent 
boundary  questions. 

The  Spanish  claims  to  America  can  not  be  based  on 
the  discovery  by  Columbus  or  the  subsequent  Bull  of 
Pope  Alexander  VI.  giving  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
all  the  New  World,  but  their  actual  occupation  of  the 
count  r'y  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Gulfs  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Mexico  under  the  name  New  Spain.  By 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  in  which  all  nations  are 
involved.  Great  Britain  acknowledged  the  claims  of 
8pain  to  her  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  and  the 
western  part  of  the  continent,  and  made  those  arrange- 
ments which  were  the  development  of  modern 
diplomacy  and  maritime  law,  whereby  both  nations 
might  enjoy  undisturbed  their  respective  rights  of 
navigation,  commerce  and  fishery. 

B  :he  tenth  article  of  this  treaty,  France  ceded  to 
England  "to  be  possessed  in  full  right  forever,  the 
Bay  and  Straights  of  Hudson,  together  with  all  lands, 
seas,  sea-coasts,  rivers  and  places  situated  in  the  said 
bay  and  straights,"  as  well  as  Nova  Scotia  and  New- 
foundland, but  retained  Canada  and  Louisiana. 

Thus  the  colonies  grew  up  in  the  New  World  and 


10 


THE   DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


were  augmented  in  population  by  those  fleeing  from 
the  political  and  religious  disturbances  in  Europe. 
Side  by  side  the  Romance  and  the  Anglo  Saxon  races 
became  prosperous  under  very  different  circumstances. 
The  one  had  no  popular  government  for  many  years, 
after  its  foundation;  the  other  was  self -organized  and 
self-governed.  The  religion  of  one  though  sincere  and 
moral  in  its  influence  was  a  religion  that  clung  to 
forms,  and  to  an  imposing  ritual ;  the  religion  of  the 
other  was  far  from  that  of  Rome  both  in  form  and 
spirit  and  claimed  to  be  guided  by  the  simple  inter- 
pretation  of  the  Bible. 


THE    OLD    RfeGIMES. 


Uf.' 


It  •!' 


m 


We  now  arrive  at  that  period  of  history  when  the 
religious  and  political  character  of  Canada  besfan  to 
assume  that  form  which  has  influenced  its  destiny. 
This  is  the  period  when  America  began  to  receive 
steadily  increasing  numbers  of  immigrants,  seeking  in 
a  new  country  better  and  surer  means  of  living.  They 
were  the  Puritans  and  Quakers  from  England ;  the 
Huguenots  and  Jesuits  of  France,  the  most  daring  of 
Spanish  adventurers,  the  most  restless  of  French  ex- 
plorers— exiles  from  all  nations  fleeing  from  whatever 
was  conscientiously  or  politically  extreme  in  the  society 
of  Europe. 

The  causes  of  the  development  of  the  continent^ 
and  in  particular  of  those  parts  which  are  now  the 
United  States,  are  to  be  found  not  merely  in  the  physi- 
cal capabilities  of  the  country,  or  in  the  ample  room  for 
growing  numbers,  but  in  the  desire  of  freedom  and  com- 
mercial enterprise  which  the  settlers  brought  with  them. 
The  spirit  of  commerce  pushed  on  the  population  into 
the  wilderness,  thus  opening  new  channels  of  trade,  and 
creating  cities. 

The  Canadian  system  was  grafted  upon  the  feudal 


THE    OLD   REGIMES. 


11 


and  agricultural;  hence  the  mixed  character  of  the 
country  combining  the  elements  of  monarchy  with 
democracy.  Liberty  of  conscience  and  worship  wa»- 
not  permitted,  and  although  the  Huguenots  would 
rather  have  settled  in  a  country  under  their  King,  they 
were  not  allowed  to  do  so.  The  duty  of  spreading 
Christianity  was  permitted  only  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lies,  and  their  power  was  sufficient  to  exclude  entirely 
the  liberal  and  republican  tendencies  of  the  Hugue- 
nots. Political  influence  was  ever  present  on  the  side 
of  the  CathobVs,  and  to  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  given 
the  entire  control  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Although 
we  may  conclude  from  a  study  of  the  Jesuits  that  they 
were  smcere  in  their  mission  of  introducing  Catholic- 
ism among  the  savage  tribes,  still  it  was  the  possession 
of  the  fur  trade  that  gave  impetus  to  their  efforts.. 
Placed  side  by  side  with  civilizing  influences  there  was. 
left  to  the  Indians  no  compromise  of  rites.  They  hadi 
mistaken  darkness  for  light.  They  had  worshiped  the 
great  spirits  of  the  Sun  and  Moon  instead  of  the  True 
God  and  Saviour.  They  were  in  error.  They  must 
abandon  their  system  at  once.  This  the  tribes  who 
spread  along  the  shores  and  rivers  of  Canada  were 
told,  and  the  Jesuits  kept  nothing  back.  They  founded 
churches  among  them,  and  translated  the  Roman  Ritual 
and  Prayer  Book  into  their  language. 

It  was  impossible  for  the  French  and  Indians  to  co- 
exist on  the  same  territory.  History  proved  it.  The 
Indians  could  only  live  in  prosperity  by  their  own  laws 
and  customs.  It  only  remained  for  the  colonists  to 
push  them  farther  into  the  wilderness  as  civilization 
advanced.  As  the  colonists  increased  in  numbers,  they 
desired  more  territory^  which  the  Indians  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  sell  as  long  as  their  own  domain  seemed  almost 
boundless.  But  although  many  paid  for  the  lands- 
which  they  took  from  the  Indians,  there  were  others 
who  drove  them  without  mercy  from  their  ancient 
homes  and  the  graves  of  their  forefathers.     They  ob~ 


12 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


tained  per  fas  aut  nefas  the  territories  marked  out  by 
their  royal  charters  without  regard  to  the  previous 
"  rights "  of  the  uncivilized  occupants  of  the  soil. 
There  are  some  who  think  that  the  claims  of  the  Indi- 
ans were  to  be  preferred  to  those  of  the  settlers  and 
would  have  retained  them  in  their  original  homes,  but 
the  accepted  doctrine  of  international  law  confirms  the 
right  of  civilized  nations  to  the  lands  of  those  who  live 
in  a  savage  state.     In  opening  up  new  realms  it  is 


I      \ 


l-^M 


|!8li 


"The  simple  plan 
That  he  shall  take  who  has  the  power, 
And  he  shall  keep  who  can." 

On  a  continent  of  vast  reso  irces  it  is  the  duty  of  a 
civilized  nation  to  cultivate  the  soil  and  invite  civilized 
men  to  its  shores.  And  between  two  civilized  nations 
the  one  that  first  takes  possession  has  the  better  title 
to  new  territory. 

In  the  words  of  Francis  Parkman  in  The  Old  Regime 
in  Canada :  "  The  Jesuits  had  essayed  a  fearful  task — 
to  convert  the  Iroquois  to  God  and  to  the  King,  thwart 
the  Dutch  heretics  of  the  Hudson,  save  souls  from  hell, 
avert  ruin  from  Canada,  and  thus  raise  their  order  to  a 
place  of  honor  and  influence  both  hard  earned  and  well 
earned."  The  mission  stations  of  the  Jesuits  formed 
one  of  the  worst  systems  of  government — that  of  the 
theocratic  state — and  it  is  not  strange  that  Richelieu's 
Company  of  New  France  made  no  political  progress. 

The  Colony  increased  to  only  one  hundred  and  five 
persons,  and  only  two  families  were  able  *'  to  support 
themselves  from  the  products  of  the  soil ;  the  rest  lived 
on  supplies  from  France."  Cruelty  toward  the  Indians 
caused  desperate  retaliation,  tuid  the  colonists  were 
compelled  to  build  their  settlements  close  together, 
and  cultivate  only  the  land  near  them.  This  accounts 
for  the  peculiar  military  style  of  some  of  the  old  towns. 

The  settlements  in  Canada  were  not  only  in  danger 


THE    OLD   RfeOIMES. 


18 


m's 


of  destruction  by  the  Indians,  but  there  was  a  bitter 
domestic  quarrel  between  the  Jesuits  who  controlled 
Quebec  and  the  priests  of  St.  Sulpice.  The  Jesuits, 
who  for  nearly  thirty  years  had  constituted  the  Cana- 
dian church,  strongly  objected  to  the  appointment  as 
bishop  of  Father  Queylus  of  the  Sulpitiau  order. 
The  dispute  was  quieted  for  a  time  by  the  choice  of  a 
bishop  in  the  person  of  the  great  Francois  Xavier  de 
Laval — Montmorency,  Abbe  de  Montigny. 

At  that  time  the  Catholics  of  France  were  divided 
into  two  gi'eat  parties — the  Papal  party,  who  believed 
that  the  Pope  was  Christ's  vicegerent,  supreme  over 
all  earthly  rulers  and  vested  with  all  sacerdotal 
authority ;  and  the  Gallican  party,  w^ho  maintained 
that  to  the  King  belonged  the  temporal  and  to  the 
Church  the  spiritual  power,  while  the  bishops  had  an 
independent  commission  from  heaven. 

The  Jesuits  were  bound  to  the  Papal  or  Ultra- 
montane party,  and  labored  for  the  support  of  the 
Holy  See ;  they  condemned  the  Gallican  liberties  and 
Avere  aided  by  the  court  of  France.  Laval  was  of  the 
Papal  party  and  came  to  Canada,  not  as  Bishop  of 
i^uebec,  but  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Pope,  thus 
placing  Canada  under  the  direct  jurisdiction  of  the 
Pope.  Therefore,  the  Church  of  Rome  has  always 
endeavored  to  retain  its  control  over  the  government 
of  Canada,  while  always  maintaining  its  liberty  and 
independence  in  that  country. 

Laval  was  a  devout  Roman  Catholic,  and  believed 
firmly  in  the  principles  of  his  church,  that  he,  as 
Vicar  of  the  Pope,  was  Christ's  Vicar  on  earth,  and 
that  so  far  as  Canada  extended  it  was  his  duty  to 
Go<l  to  uphold  the  Papal  supremacy.  He  came  at 
a  time  when  the  Company  of  New  France  had  clearly 
shown  its  uselessness,  and  established  an  ecclesiastical 
control  over  Canada  which  has  always  existed,  and  is 
the  foundation  of  the  great  power  and  influence  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  in  that  country  at  the  present  day. 


% 


14 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


m 


I     :« 


ii 


The  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  high  birth  of 
Laval,  gave  him  great  strength  at  Court.  He  Avent 
to  France,  and  succeeded  through  an  edict  passed  by 
Loui.  XIII.  in  having  the  government  of  tne  colony 
vested  in  a  Superior  Council,  composed  of  five  per- 
sons, nominated  by  Laval,  and  by  a  Governor,  whom 
he  had  also  chosen,  who  should  assist  the  Governor 
and  principal  ecclesiastic  in  the  performance  of  their 
functions.  The  agent  of  the  King  was  the  intendant. 
This  council  had  legislative  power  subject  to  the 
ultimate  control  of  the  parent  state,  and  a  supreme 
jurisdiction  in  civil  and  criminal  cases  accordmg  t  > 
the  forms  and  usages  prescribed  by  the  Parliament  of 
Paris.     The  Company  of  New  France  was  dissolved. 

Thus  Laval  strengthened  the  power  of  the  Church 
over  Canada  and  used  the  Governor  and  Council  as  a 
tool  to  carry  out  his  designs.  He  introduced  a  system 
of  removable  cures  under  the  will  of  the  superior^ 
which  prevails  in  most  of  the  parishes  at  this  day. 
But  the  most  lasting  and  eff.ective  method  of  enriching 
the  Church  was  introduced  with  the  feudal  system, 
whereby  all  lands  were  granted  en  fief^  as  manors  or 
eu  roture  subject  to  the  servitudes  which  the  law  ex- 
acted from  the  vassal  to  his  lord  paramount.  Fines 
were  paid  to  the  lord  on  the  sale  of  inheritances,  and 
the  right  of  pre-emption  was  reserved  to  the  seigneur, 
or  in  some  cases  the  heirs  of  the  vendor.  Lands  were 
granted  out  as  fiefs  to  those  who  would  carry  settlers 
with  them,  and  the  holders  were  the  peasantry  or 
habitants  who  paid  small  rents  and  did  military  service 
in  protecting  the  feofdom  from  the  Indians.  The  lord 
reserved  for  himself  the  right  of  trading  in  furs  and 
fishing. 

The  results  of  this  system  have  been  to  check  the 
transfer  of  property  and  force  large  estates  into  the 
hands  of  a  few.  Vast  tracts  of  land  in  the  best  and 
most  beautiful  parts  of  Canada  were  granted  to  the 
Church,  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  clergy  and  the 


^1. 


III 


THE    OLD    REGIMES. 


15 


support  of  ecclesiastical  schools.  There  were  no  schools 
untler  a  general  system  of  education  supported  by 
local  rates  or  taxes,  except  the  seminaries,  and  thev 
were  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  Church,  whicu 
imposed  for  their  support  a  tithe  of  one-thirteenth 
on  all  products  of  the  soil  or  forest  for  their  support. 
In  addition  to  this  a  portion  of  the  salaries  of  the 
cures  was  paid  by  the  King. 

In  granting  letters  patent  for  the  establishment  of 
the  Seminary  at  Quebec,  the  King  distinctly  limited 
the  college  to  one  "  In  which  shall  be  educated  and 
trained  young  clerks,  who  shall  appear  fit  fo^*  the 
service  of  God,  and  to  whom,  for  this  purpose  shall  be 
taught  the  manner  of  administering  the  sacraments; 
the  method  of  catechising,  and  of  preaching  modern 
theology,  according  to  apostolical  doctrines ;  the  cere- 
monies of  the  church  ;  the  full  Gregorian  chaunt ;  and 
other  matters  appertaining  to  the  duties  of  the  good 
ecclesiastic."^ 

The  grants  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  were 
made  in  mortmain.  That  of  1677,  establishing  the 
college  at  Montreal,  included  the  whole  of  the  island 
and  seigneurie  of  that  name.  Those  creating  the 
Greater  and  Lesser  Seminaries  were  also  very  liberal. 
These  seminaries  still  exist  and  a^'o  the  most  impor- 
tant Catholic  institutions  on  the  continent. 

Francis  Parkman,  in  "  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada," 
in  treating  of  the  manner  in  which  Laval  disposed  of 
his  vast  estates,  says  '?  "  Some  of  these  he  sold  or 
exchaged  ;  others  he  retained  till  the  year  1680,  when 
he  gave  them,  with  nearly  all  else  that  he  then  posses- 
sed, to  his  seminary  at  Quebec.  The  lands  with 
which  he  thus  endowed,  it  included  the  seigniories  of 
the  Petite  Nation,  the  island  of  Jesus  and  Beaupre. 
The  last  is  of  great  extent  and  at  the  present  day  of 
great  value.     Beginning  a  few  miles  below  Quebec,  it 

1.  "Edits  et  OrJlnances."   tome  1.,  p.  25. 

2.  p.  164. 


'.! 


"i 


•t 


1 


J- 


16 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


borders  the  St.  Lawrence  for  a  distance  of  sixteen 
leagues,  and  is  six  leagues  in  depth,  measured  from  the 
river."  From  these  sources  the  seminary  now  called 
Laval  University  draws  an  abundant  revenue, ''  though 
its  segniorial  rights  were  conmiuted  on  t.e  recent 
extinction  of  the  feudal  tenure  in  Canada." 

Dependence  taught  the  colonies  to  lean  upon  the 
mother  country ;  and  thus  retarded  natural  prosperity. 
They  lived  under  a  despotism,  political,  religious  and 
commerical.  The  interference  of  the  government  in 
the  local  affairs  of  Canada  was  carried  to  the  extreme. 
Every  household  was  under  the  eye  of  the  officials  or 
priests,  and  some  of  the  orders  of  the  council  declared 
that  a  chimney  should  be  swept,  cattle  should  be 
killed,  and  even  "  that  besides  white  bread  and  light 
brown  bread,  all  bakers  shall  hereafter  make  dark 
bro^vn  bread  whenever  the  same  shall  be  required." 
There  were  many  peculiar  orders  regulating  religious 
matters.  The  colonists  were  strictly  forbidden  to 
quarrel  in  church,  and  in  order  that  there  might  be 
perfect  harmony  during  the  service  the  pews  were 
assigned  in  the  order  of  rank  and  precedence. 

France,  under  the  despotic  government  of  the  Bour- 
bons, could  not  be  a  mother  of  prosperous  colonies. 
The  Peace  of  1763,  and  consequent  renunciation  of  all 
claims  of  France  to  Canada,  marks  a  period  of  new  and 
healthy  growth  in  that  country.  The  fourth  article  of 
the  treaty  declares  that : 

"  His  Most  Christian  Majesty  renounces  all  preten- 
tions which  he  has  heretofore  formed,  or  might  form 
to  Nova  Scotia  or  Acadia,  in  all  its  parts,  and  guaran- 
tees the  whole  of  it  and  all  its  dependencies  to  the 
King  of  Great  Britain.  Moreover,  His  Most  Christian 
Majesty  cedes  and  guarantees  to  His  said  Britannic 
Majesty  in  full  right,  Canada  with  all  its  dependencies, 
as  well  as  the  Island  of  Cape  Breton,  and  all  the  other 
Islands  and  Coasts  in  the  Gulf  and  River  St.  Lawrence." 

By  this  treaty  Spain  gave  Florida  to  England  and 


;M 


'1! 


THE    OLD    RfeGLMES. 


17 


receut 


were 


1) 


received  in  exchange  from  France,  Louisiana  beyond 
the  Mississippi.  Tliis  territory  wac  retroceded  to 
France  in  1800,  and  transferred  by  France  to  the 
United  States  in  1803,  'Mn  tlie  name  of  the  French 
Republic,  forever  and  in  full  sovereignty." 

The  exploration  and  settlement  of  the  "west  and 
northwest  was  brought  about  by  the  many  companies 
engaged  in  the  fur  trade.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
was  chartered  in  1670  by  a  grant  of  Charles  II.  to  his 
cousin.  Prince  Rupert,  and  after  the  English  took  Can- 
ada it  obtained  a  monopoly  of  almost  the  entire  fur 
trade  of  North  America.  The  Northwest  Company, 
the  Pacific  Fur  Company  and  other  traders  were  thus 
driven  to  the  regions  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  several  discoveries  made  in  the  northwest  by 
explorers  in  search  of  a  supposed  northern  passage 
between  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  caused 
Russia  to  send  several  expeditions  under  the  direction 
of  a  Siberian  and  Kamtchatkan  fur  company,  to  the 
shores  of  America.  In  1763  Russia  established  trad- 
ing posts  in  Alaska.^  Thus  Russia  based  her  claims 
to  American  territory  on  "  The  title  of  first  discovery ; 
the  title  of  first  occupation ;  and  in  the  last  place,  that 
which  results  from  a  peaceable  and  uncontested  posses- 
sion of  more  than  half  a  century.'"^  And  both  England 
and  the  United  States  by  the  St.  Petersburg  Conven- 
tion of  1824,  recognized  the  territorial  rights  of  Russia 
as  far  south  as  54°  40'  north  latitude.  By  the  treaty 
of  March  30,  1867,  Russia  ceded  Alaska  to  the  United 
States. 

England's  supremacy  gave  to  Canada  commerce, 
cultivation  and  security,  but  her  first  policy  was 
weak  and  uncertain.  She  found  herself  possessed 
of  a  country  entirely  different  in  language,  religion  and 
constitution,  that  had  imbibed  French  politics  from 


1.  British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  1821-22,  p.  484. 

2.  Idem,  p.  485. 


1 


18 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA, 


the  cradle  nnd  still  retained  the  hereditary  antipathy 
toward  her,  but  instead  of  insisting  that  British  law 
should  be  enforced  and  the  English  language  and 
religion  encouraged,  she  granted  her  newly  conquered 
.subjects  every  privilege  in  her  power.  Thus  she 
allowed  Canada  to  retain  those  influences  of  feudalism 
and  Papalism  which,  as  we  shall  see,  produced  the 
characteristic  peculiarities  of  Canadian  politics. 

The  freedom  of  local  government  allowed  the 
other  colonies  in  America  was  the  cause  of  their 
increase  in  population  and  wealth,  and  of  that  power 
to  rely  on  their  own  resources  which  asserted  itself  at 
the  time  of  ou.  independence.  An  entirely  opposite 
state  of  affairs  existed  in  Canada;  they  had  never  been 
Accustomed  to  think  or  act  for  themselves,  and  were 
in  constant  need  of  aid  from  the  court  of  France. 
The  monarchic  principles  under  which  they  were  born 
were  firmly  implanted  in  the  minds  of  the  Canadian 
people,  and  they  were  not  capable  of  self-government 
or  of  comprehending  the  benefits  which  they  could 
derive  from  joining  in  a  movement  for  the  assumj)tion 
of  imperial  powers. 

After  the  American  War  of  Independence  in  the 
treaty  as  detennined  on  September  3,  1783,  England 
made  the  following  concessions  as  to  North  America : 

1.  The  Ind^^pendence  of  the  thirteen  United  States 
and  its  participation  in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries. 
The  Navigation  of  the  Mississippi  was  thrown  open  to 
both  nations. 

2.  France  obtained  participation  in  the  Newfound- 
land fisheries,  and  the  isles  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelou. 

3.  Spain  retained  Florida  and  received  back  terri- 
tories that  had  been  conquered. 

The  treaty  made  many  regulations  of  commerce, 
and  the  period  therefore  is  one  of  development  and 
prosperity  both  on  the  continent  and  in  Europe.     The 


i 


atipathy 
bish  law 
ige  and 
iiquered 
lus  she 
udalism 
ced  the 


THE    OLD    REGIMES. 


19 


American  Republic  prospered  and  England  soon  found 
that  instead  of  losing  by  the  separation,  she  gained  by 
a  commerce  with  America  which  proved  a  source  of 
great  wealth. 


ed    the 
'f  their 
b  power 
tself  at 
pposite 
er  been 
id  were 
France. 
■  e  born 
uadian 
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could 
uption 

in  the 
igland 
3rica : 


States 
heries. 
pen  to 


:ound- 
uelou. 

terri- 


nerce, 

t  and 

The 


I 


CHAPTER  II.— ETHNICAL. 


RACE. 


% 


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I 


W'\ 


h*ii 


:'. " 


lift: 


There  is  a  difference  in  the  ethnical  characters  of 
the  two  countries.  Comparison  will  enable  us  to 
determine  how  far  they  differ.  Thus  we  may  see  the 
origin  of  the  peoples  from  early  colonization  and  the 
effect  upon  them  of  a  large  foreign  immigration.  The 
subject  cannot,  however,  be  fairly  treated  without 
attention  to  language ;  for  the  character  and  compre- 
hensiveness of  a  language  tells  the  character  of  the 
people  who  speak  it,  and  plays  an  important  part  in 
the  formation  of  a  nation.  The  languages  of  later 
immigrants  come  in  contact  with  those  of  earlier  set- 
tler?, and  where  the  Teutonic  elements  predominate 
English  is  likely  to  prevail. 

A  Teutonic  people  has  laid  the  foundations  of' 
freedom  and  civilization  in  America,  and  by  the  usual 
custom  of  that  people  Christianity  and  liberal  educa- 
tion have  been  diffused.  The  principles  of  self- 
government  in  local  and  general  affairs  have  trained 
men  in  the  exercise  of  their  public  duties  and  taught 
the  necessity  of  giving  that  security  to  person  and 
property  so  firmly  guaranteed  by  our  constitution. 
The  colonies  were  governed  by  the  utmost  strictness 
in  religious  and  political  matters,  but  underneath  an 
apparent  aristocracy  there  were  capacities  of  self- 
government  which  developed  into  a  state.  The  people 
gradually  formed  the  government,  and  therefore,  being 
satisfied  and  prosperous,  the  corner  stone  of  a  great 
empire  was  securely  laid.    It  is  not  necessary  to  re- 


i 


1. 


ILVCK. 


21 


peat  tlie  history  of  the  Angh)-Anu'ilc.'iu  pe(»i)le  from 
the  year  1620,  when  tlie  emigi'aiits  lauded  at  Ply- 
mouth  Rock,  to  the  War  of  tlie  Kevolation,  wlien^ 
following  the  example  of  their  Pilgrim  ancestors,  they 
formed  a  "civil  body  politick,"  and  fonnde<l  :i  federa- 
tion of  states  which  seems  destined  to  hand  down  to- 
posterity  the  language  and  the  laws  of  England. 
Democracy  was  the  only  practical  and  jH'oper  consti- 
tution for  a  country  without  a  past.  The  government 
of  the  United  States  developed  from  the  needs  and 
exigencies  of  the  people,  that  of  Canada  Avas  firmly 
established  for  ruling  its  peoi)le  even  long  before 
]        those  people  existed  and  their  wants  were  known. 

The  laws  and  usages  which  France  established  in 
Canada  formed  the  character  of  that  country  and  the- 
habits,  manners,  moral  education  and  prejudices  of  its; 
people,  trained  under  the  French  adnnnistration,  were* 
radically  diffej'ent  from  our  own.     This  difference  wag- 
shown  when  the  people  of  Canada  refused  to  join  with; 
the  colonists  of  New  England  in  asserting  their  inde- 
pendence.    It  was  because  of  their  Romance  extrjic- 
tion  and  their  training  in   a  school  of  monarchy  and 
theocracy.     They  did  noo  know  the  full  meaning  of 
freedom  or  liow  they  could  better  their  political  con- 
dition.    They  were  becoming  accustomed  to  the  Eng- 
lish yoke,  and   had   already  found  it  more  agreeable* 
than  that  of  France.     It  was  not  strange  that   they 
did   not   wish  to  make  a  hazardous  experiment   and 
link  their  fortunes  with  a  people  with  whom  they  ha(t 
few  sympathies  or   common   interests.     The  Frenclr 
and  Indian  war  had  left  a  feeling  of  dislike  toward' 
the  inhabitants  of  New  England,  since  there  had  al- 
ways been  trouble  between  the  French  and  English 
colonies.     On  the  other  hand,  when  Canada  was  con- 
quered by  the  British,  the  New  England  colonists  had 
no  longer  the  spirit  of  loyalty  to  the  mother  country. 

Congress  endeavored  repeatedly  to  enlist  the  people- 
of  Canada  in  aid  of  tlie  revolution  and  caused  circulars. 


n 


t 


9Q 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


r*    » 


m 


k 


ai: 


!,R, 


l>  > 


I 


V' 


iS.il ' 


r.iiil  elofiuent  addresses  to  be  printed  and  distributed 
among  them.  The  address  ot  tlie  General  Congress 
■of  October  2(5,  1774,  Avliile  showim^  that  the  Americans 
Iviiew  tlie  great  obstacles  to  union,  tries  to  smooth 
them  over.  It  contains  this  reference  to  the  religion  of 
Canada  :  "We  are  too  well  iic([\i  'nted  with  the  li])er- 
ality  distinguishing  your  nation,  to  imagine,  that  dif- 
ference of  religion  will  prejudice  you  against  a  hearty 
amity  with  us.  You  know,  that  the  transcendent 
nature  of  freedom  elevates  those  who  unite  in  the 
cause  above  all  such  low  minded  infirmities.  The 
Swiss  Cantons  furnish  a  memorable  ])roof  of  this  truth. 
Their  union  is  composed  of  Catholic  and  Protestant 
States  living  in  the  utmost  concord  and  peace  with  one 
another,  and  thereby  enabled,  ever  since  they  bravely 
vindicated  their  freedom,  to  defy  and  defeat  every 
tyrant  that  has  invaded  them." 

The  conunittee  sent  to  work  among  them  reported 
that  the  population  was  uninfluenced,  as  only  one  out 
of  five  hundred  could  read  ;  and  Br.  Franklin  with  his 
usual  wit  wrote  back  that  the  next  mission  sent  up  to 
Canada  had  better  be  ''composed  of  schoolmasters." 
While  attending  the  negotiations  of  the  Treaty  of 
Peace  at  Paris,  Dr.  Franklin  urged  ^he  giving  up  of 
Canada  to  the  United  States  and  argued  that  there 
could  be  no  solid  and  permanent  peace  without  it; 
that  it  would  cost  the  British  government  more  to  keep 
it  than  it  was  worth ;  that  it  would  be  a  source  of 
future  difficulties  with  the  United  States ;  that  some 
day  or  other  it  must  belong  to  them  ;  and  that  it  was 
the  interest  of  both  parties  that  it  should  be  ceded  in 
the  treaty  of  peace.  Yet  he  did  not  urge  the  cession 
as  a  necessary  condition  of  peace,  and  it  was  not  much 
dwelt  upon  in  the  negotiations,  but  on  the  rights  of 
Americans  to  fish  in  the  Canadian  waters  he  laid 
special  stress. 

The  })eople  of  the  United  States  are  for  the  moat 
part  of  Teutonic  extraction,  and  although  the  different 


RACE. 


23 


bnincbes  are  not  fully  amalgamated,  the  Anjjjlo-Ameri- 
can  element  is  rai)idly  absorbing  the  otliers.  The 
«lirt'»n'ent  elements  once  so  eonsjucuous  in  various 
localities  are  now  hardly  distinguishable,  and  we  sel- 
<l(»ni  refer  to  the  English  of  New  England,  the  Welsh 
of  Pennsylvania,  the  Dutch  of  New  York,  the  Ger- 
mv<-  of  Pennsylvania,  the  Scotch  of  New  Jersey,  or 
tlie  humerous  other  races  who  Urst  cultivated  the  soil. 
The  immigrants  who  have  arrived  on  the  Atlantic 
shores  at  different  periods  have  made  their  settlements 
among  the  English  speaking  inhabitants,  and  all  learn- 
ing tlieir  language,  had  gradually  become  assimilated 
to  tliem  in  manners  and  habits.  Then,  as  the  Eastern 
States  became  more  crowded,  the  native-born  left  for 
new  openings  and  younger  cities  in  the  West.  The 
decrease  in  the  population  of  the  New  E.  gland  States 
would  be  very  perceptible  but  for  the  fact  that  their 
places  are  taken  by  French  Canadians.  But  although 
we  can  not  perceive  by  ethnical  character  the  original 
po[)ulations  in  tlie  States,  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that 
immigrants  seek  those  parts,  which  are  similar  in  geo- 
graphical character  to  their  native  countries.  Thus, 
the  Swedes  and  Norwegians  settle  on  farms  in  our 
northern  states,  as  the  Dakotas,  Minnesota,  and  Wis- 
consin. The  Germans  settle  in  the  states  along  the 
Mississippi  and  Missouri  Rivers,  and  with  the  Scotch 
and  English  make  good  farmers.  The  Irish  remain  in 
the  cities  and  generally  move  toward  the  New  Eng- 
land States  in  preference  to  the  far  West.  The 
Italians  also  are  inclined  to  swarm  in  cities,  and,  being 
of  Romance  extraction,  do  not  form  a  congenial  ele- 
ment in  a  community. 

The)*e  is  a  distinction  between  Anglo-Canadians  and 
French-Canadians.  The  former  have  retained  a  pre- 
dilection for  the  English  manners,  language,  tastes 
and  religion ;  while  the  latter  have  become  attached 
to  their  original  French  habits  and  language.  The 
French-Canadian    element    predominates    in     certain. 


!r 


I  'i>\ 


:l: 


24 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


'  III 


ifci:i 


m 


i'^'' 


■u 


■!  1 


localities,  especially  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  and 
has  a  decided  influence  on  the  entire  social  and 
religious  life. 

This  element  is  "an  old  stationary  society  in  the 
midst  of  a  new  and  advancing  world."  In  many  re- 
spects the  French  in  Canada  are  quite  different  from 
the  French  of  the  present  day  in  France ;  those  of 
France  are  more  advanced  in  modern  ideas.  The  first 
settlers  in  Canada  quitted  Europe  before  the  gieat 
revolution  of  1797  had  turned  the  Frenchman  into  a 
progressive  being.  The  English  care  little  about  them 
and  hold  almost  all  public  offices.  Therefore  the  French 
population  is  opposed  to  the  English,  and  there  is  be- 
tween the  two  little  social  intercourse,  and  no  good 
understanding  or  co-operation.  The  English  are  more 
practical  and  energetic,  and  are  therefore  richer;  the 
French  do  not  advance  beyond  theories.  They  are 
very  proud  since  many  are  descended  from  the  old 
seigneurs,  and  desire  to  maintain  old  laws,  espejially 
those  respecting  landed  property,  by  which  the  activity 
of  the  English  is  everywhere  impeded. 

The  population  of  French  origin  in  Canada,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1881,  is  1,299,161.  The  great 
majority  remain  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  which  is 
thoroughly  French,  having  a  French  Speaking  popula- 
tion of  1,075,130,  out  of  a  total  population  of  1,359,027. 
Their  language  is  spoken  throughout  the  province,  in 
many  places  in  the  Dominion,  and  in  the  Federal  Par- 
liament. Consequently,  laws  are  printed  in  French  as 
well  as  in  English,  and  both  languages  are  used  in 
debates,  public  meetings  and  courts.^  The  families  of 
the  French  are  large  and  increase  rapidly,  and  in  the 
Province  of  Quebec  they  buy  up  the  farms  of  the  Eng- 
lish who  move  to  the  west.  The  clergy  encourage  them 
in  this,  since  lands  occupied  by  Catholics  must  pay 
tithe.  Families  of  twelve  children  are  common  in  French- 
Canada,  and  those  of  twenty  are  not  rare.     Therefore, 

1.  B.  N.  A.  Act,  sec.  123. 


RACE. 


25 


aud 


although  the  English  people  predominate,  the  chances 
of  an  overbalancing  increase  are  equally  in  favor  of  the 
French-Canadians.^ 

Prof.  Rambaud,  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters  of  Paris, 
says  : 

"  Les  Franco-Cauadiens  ont  conserve  non  seuleraent 
leur  langue,  mais  I'amour  de  la  France.  Sans  doute 
ils  sont  de  loyaux  sujets  I'Angleterre,  et  la  protection 
britaunique  est  une  de  leurs  garanties  contre  les  am- 
bitions de  la  Republique  araericain.3.  Comme  drapeau 
national,  a  cote  du  drapeau  britaunique,  ils  ont  le 
drapeau  frangais :  non  celui  de  I'ancienne  monarchic, 
mais  celui  de  la  France  de  1789.  Dans  leurs  fetes 
nationales,  ce  sont  les  pavilions  et  les  orittammes  tri- 
colores  qui  pavoisent  les  monuments,  et  c'est  le  drapeau 
tricolore  qui  flotte  dans  les  manifestations  publiques. 
Plus  d'une  fois  deja,  dans  la  guerre  du  Mexique,  dans 
la  querre  de  1870,  de  nombreux  volontaires  canadiens 
sont  venus  partager  nos  dangers. 

"  Sur  un  autre  point  du  continent  americain  a  I'em- 
bouchure  de  ce  Mississippi  que  decouvrit  Cavelier  de 
La  Salle,  dans  notre  ancienne  colonic  de  Louisiane, 
autour  des  villes  de  Saint-Louis  et  de  la  Nouvelle-Or- 
leans,  notre  lanmie  s'est  maintenue  egalement  dans  la 
deceudance  d'une  poignee  de  nos  auciens  colons  :  elle 
compte  aujourd'hui  environ  200,000  ames."^ 

Do  the  inhabitants  oi  Quebec  cherish  che  Lope  of 
establishing  a  French  Nation  ?  They  are  an  independ- 
ent element  in  the  Dominion,  and  on  many  domestic 
questions  are  antagonistic  to  the  central  government 
and  would  probably  remain  in  the  same  attitude  to- 
ward our  own,  should  annexation  take  place.  In  the 
other  provinces,  although  the  French  language  does 
not  predominate,  its  influence  is  greatly  felt. 

The  motion  broujjht  before  the  present  session  of 

1.  Rambaud's  "La  France  Coloniale,  Introduction  Historique,"  p.  37. 

2.  Rambaud's  "  La  France  Coloniale,"  p.  37. 


m 


III!*' 

li'"   " 


^1 


Itll^ 


t  »i 
iHij  ■ 


i>  T 


^^iiij! 


.4H. 


•»    .. 


26 


THE    DOMINION   OF   CANADA. 


the  Dominion  Parliament  by  Mr.  Dal  ton  McCarthy,  a 
conservative,  proposing  the  abolition  of  the  law  recog- 
nizing French  as  the  official  language  of  the  North- 
west Territories,  brought  forcibly  before  the  public  the 
strong  desire  of  the  French  population  to  retain  every- 
thing French.  Mr.  McCarthy  and  his  followers  argued 
that  it  was  necessary  for  the  peace  and  prosperity  of 
the  country  for  Anglo-Saxon  institutions  to  predomin- 
ate ;  but  they  Avere  unsuccessful,  since  the  dual  lan- 
guage has  been  fastened  upon  the  courts,  leaving  the 
use  of  the  French  language  in  the  discretion  of  the 
provincial  legislature. 

The  French  language  in  Canada  has  not  remained 
as  it  was  spoken  by  the  first  settlers.  It  appears  t 
have  formed  itself  into  a  conventional  dialect  which  i. 
not  pure  French,  and  is  known  as  Canadian  French. 
TVhen  the  French  traders  communicated  with  the  Ind- 
ians, they  did  so  in  a  rude,  simple  language  composed 
of  the  most  useful  Avords  and  despoiled  of  all  case  end- 
ing and  syntax.  There  developed,  tlierefore,  in  those 
parts  of  Canada  where  there  was  little  communication 
between  village  and  village,  a  dialect  deprived  of  all 
uniformity  and  in  which  are  found  many  Indian  words* 
and  expressions. 

The  growth  of  this  dialect  was  natural  and  received 
encouragement  from  the  frequent  inter-marriage  of  the 
whites  and  Indians, and  the  consequent  mixed  language 
of  their  children.  From  these  half-breeds  or  Metis 
many  of  the  influential  citizens  of  Canada  are  descended. 

The  French  common  people  who  went  up  into 
the  northwest  soon  adapted  themselves  to  the  ex- 
isting customs  of  forest  life.  Being  superstitious  and 
illiterate,  they  readily  made  friends  with  the  Indians, 
who  respected  their  religious  and  festive  ceremonies. 
They  took  to  aafe  the  daughters  of  the  Cree,  Black- 
foot  and  Chippewa  Indians  and  reared  large  families, 
which  constitute  to  this  day  a  distinct  element  in  the 
ethnical  character  of  the  Dominion. 


■' 


RACE. 


27 


1 


III  the  remote  regions  of  British  North  America 
where  the  native  tribes  have  not  come  so  closely  into 
contact  with  the  French  or  Englisli-speaking  people 
as  those  nearer  tlie  centres  of  civilization,  the  langnage 
has  become  changed  into  one  in  which  the  French 
language  does  not  predominate  but  by  natural  ])rocess 
of  variation,  several  dialects  have  been  produced. 

This  multiplicity  of  dialects  arises  from  the  amal- 
gamation of  races  of  different  habits  and  modes  of 
thought,  and  this,  with  special  rapidity  where,  among 
pioneer  settlements,  the  art  of  writing  hardly  exists  to- 
form  a  model  for  Avords  and  sound.  Where  three  or 
four  settle  togethf "  in  a  locality,  one  speaking  French,, 
another  English,  and  a  third  Indian,  they  will  invent 
a  language  of  some  kind  as  a  means  of  communication^ 
and  in  no  two  cases  is  this  language  exactly  the  same. 

It  is  probably  for  an  analogous  reason  that  the  Al)be 
Clavigero  found  thirty-live  dialects  in  Mexico.  This 
confusion  of  tongues  was  due  to  the  decentralized, 
tribal  organization  of  the  natives  of  America.  The 
Jesuit  missionaries  were  greatly  surprised  at  the  number 
of  languages  spoken  by  the  Indians.  This  is  a  proof 
that  the  original  possessors  of  the  soil  had  never 
attained  a  high  state  of  civilization  or  been  subject  to 
any  pow'erful  political  centralization.  Their  tendency 
to  retain  the  uncivilized  tribal  form  of  government 
always  manifests  itself,  and  the  great  number  of 
Indians  in  the  northwest  cannot  be  amalgamated  with 
our  population.  In  British  Columbia  and  the  North- 
west Territories  they  number  97,057.  In  the  Monitoba 
agency  there  are  11,311  "Treaty  Indians." 

F^or  a  few  years  past  Icelanders  have  settled  in  the 
Dominion.  In  the  regions  near  Winnipeg  there  are 
about  3000.  Their  presence  was  prominently  brought 
to  notice  by  a  conference  of  the  Icelandic  Lutheran 
Church  of  America,  held  at  Argyle,  in  Manitoba,  in 
1889,  which  was  well  attended,  and  showed  a  surpris- 
ing growth  and  prosperity  of  this  element  of  the  popu- 


ru 


w 


u.w 


4^ 

i; 

J 

•4     !♦' 


f^\ 


ff ; 


i4''. 


1,1. ,,  i 


^28 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


latioii.  The  Icelanders  retain  the  language  and  cus- 
toms of  their  liome  country,  and  it  is  yet  to  be  deter- 
mined whether  they  would  amalgamate  readily  with 
the  xYmericans. 

The  Scandinavians  in  Manitoba  in  1886  numbered 
:25,676,  about  the  same  proportion  as  the  Irish,  Scotch 
and  English. 

Russia  has  contributed  to  Canada  about  6400  Ger- 
man Mennonites  who  emigrated  from  the  country  by 
the  Sea  of  Azov.  And  1500  Russian  Jews  are  be- 
coming successful  farmers  in  the  Qu'  Appelle  valley. 

The  Chinese  in  Canada,  numbering  4350,  are  al- 
anost  all  in  British  Columbia.  The  emigration  to 
An\erica  of  these  undesirable  citizens  became  so  great 
■that  they  were  forbidden  to  land  in  British  Columbia 
as  well  as  on  our  shores.  The  Preamble  to  the  Chinese 
Exclusion  Act  of  British  Columbia  of  1886,  whicli 
was  disallowed  by  the  Governor-General  as  unconsti- 
tutional, stated  the  rejisons  why  they  are  not  wanted 
iis  follows:  1.  That  the  emigration  is  large.  £  That 
they  are  superior  in  number  to  our  own  race.^  3.  That 
they  do  not  obey  our  laws.  4.  That  they  are  dissimi- 
lar in  habits  and  manners.  5.  That  they  evade  the 
payment  of  taxes.  6.  That  they  are  unclean.  7. 
That  they  are  useless  in  cases  of  emergency.  8.  That 
they  remove  the  bodies  from  grave  yards.  9.  That 
they  have  a  bad  influence  on  the  community.^  The 
104,541  Chinamen  who  are  with  us  are  distributed 
over  the  entire  Union,  while  in  Canada  they  exhibit  a 
tendency  to  lemain  within  the  limits  of  British  Col- 
umbia, where,  as  domestic  servants,  they  supply  a  long 
felt  want. 

Although  the  French  in  Canada  number  30.40  per 
-cent,  of  tlie  population,  according  to  the  last  census, 
their  influence  is   being    gradually   overcome  by  im- 


i.  This  refers  to  China's  population  of  530,000,000. 

'2.  Vide  "Tlie  Invasion  of  Pauper  Foreigners,"  by  Arnold  "White. 
1i!finetueuth  Century,  March,  1888. 


The 


RACE. 


29 


migration  from  the  British  Isles  and  the  United  States. 
The  percentage  of  English  speaking  races  is  as  follows : 
Irish,  22.18;  English,  20.35;  and  Scotch,  16.23.  Of 
these  about  10.91  per  cent,  were  born  in  the  British 
Isles,  and  about  1.74  per  cent,  in  the  United  States. 
The  emigrants  from  the  British  Isles  and  the  United 
♦States  have  been  instrumental  in  advancing  the 
English   language  and  institutions. 

After  the  War  of  the  Revolution  those  who  were 
loyal  to  England  moved  to  Canada.  Their  number 
was  larger  than  that  of  the  exodus  from  Canada  of 
those  who  were  in  sympathy  with  the  Americans,  but 
no  valuable  statistics  of  the  respective  numbers  of  these 
immigrants  and  emigi-ants  at  that  time  are  available, 
nor  can  we  detennine  except  from  the  statements  of 
settlers,  the  movements  back  and  forth  across  the 
frontier.^ 

The  endeavors  of  the  British  government  to  encour- 
age emigration  to  Canada  met  with  but  little  success  at 
first.  Fully  four-fifths  of  the  colonists  left  Canada  after 
a  short  residence,  to  seek  surer  and  easier  means  of 
living  in  the  United  States.  Mr.  Southley  in  work 
from  data  obtained  in  the  First  Report  on  Emigration, 
states  that  "  When  assistance  for  removing  to  Canada 
has  been  afforded  to  poor  families,  either  by  their 
parishes  or  the  state,  a  great  many  have  availed  them- 
selves of  it,  only  for  the  sake  of  a  passage,  at  the  public 
expense,  to  this  promised  land.'"^  Thus  those  English 
people  who  would  have  been  so  beneficial  to  Canada  in 
counteracting  the  French  influence,  have  augmented 
the  population  of  the  United  States. 

Out  of  the  3,000,000  emigrants  from  the  British 
Isles  during  the  years  1872-8f>,  being  in  the  propor- 
tion of  1,760,000  English,  930,000  Irish,  and  300,000 
i^cotch,  fully  60  per  cent,  went  to  the  United  States, 

1  For  information  concerning  immigration  in  Canada,  etc.,  previous  to 
1828  see  "  Emigration,"  by  A.  C.  Buclianan. 

2  "Southley's  Colloquies,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  278. 


j' 


I 


-I  • 


I  > 


80 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


h  .,[ 


Iti'- 


ir  tt; '" 


l# 


WW 


20  per  cent,  to  the  Australian  colonies,  and  less  than 
1 2  per  cent,  to  Canada.^ 

The  Northwest  offers  great  inducements  to  the 
more  enterprising  Americans,  nnd  when  ^ve  calculate 
the  American  element  in  Canada  we  nuist  add  to  the 
number  who  were  born  in  the  United  States,  the  far 
greater  number  of  those  who  have  settled  there  after 
remaining  a  number  of  years  in  the  United  States. 

Next  to  the  English  and  Americans,  the  Scotch 
make  the  best  settlers  in  the  great  forests.  The  Irish 
are  not  so  good  since  they  dread  the  forest  and  prefer 
a  mode  of  life  in  the  large  cities.  The  Welsh  make 
better  farmers  than  the  Irish.  The  Germans  succeed 
very  well,  but  prefer  to  buy  a  farm  already  cultivated. 
The  Swiss  are  much  the  same  as  the  Germans.  The 
French  and  Italians  are  totally  imfit  for  planting 
colonies  in  the  woods.  Nothing;  could  be  more  alien 
to  the  usual  habits  of  a  Frenchman.  The  population 
of  France  is  almost  universally  collected  in  cities, 
towns  and  villages,  even  in  the  agricultural  districts,, 
and  thus  from  early  habit  as  well  as  constitutional 
disposition,  Frenchmen  love  society  and  cannot  endure 
the  loneliness  and  isolation  of  the  frontier  settle- 
ments. When  they  attempt  to  form  colonies  it  is  by 
grou]>ing  together  in  villages,  hence  their  settlements 
are  seldom  either  extensive  or  vigorous.  French 
emigrants  find  themselves  happier  in  the  cities  and 
large  towns.  If  resolved  to  establish  themselves  in  the 
country,  they  go  to  comparatively  well  settled  neighbor- 
hoods, not  to  the  forests  of  the  far  West. 

RELIGION. 


•:i!i 


Mi 


ml' 


After  comparing  the  history  of  colonization  in  Can- 
ada with  that  in  this  country  it  is  not  surprising  that 
we  should  find  that  the  influence  and  resources  of  the 


1  Vide  "The  Swarming  of  Men,"  by  Leonard  Courteney.    The  Nine- 
teenth Century,  March,   1888. 


If'   "  I 

11 


\ 


RELIGION. 


81 


Roman  Catholic  church  have  caused  it  to  obtain  insti- 
tutions and  priviles^es  at  variance  with  those  in  the 
United  States,  and  incompatible  with  its  government. 
The  early  colonists  in  Canada  were  Roman  Catholics, 
and  subject  to  ecclesiastical  authority  in  all  matters. 

In  tliis  country,  on  the  other  hand,  the  first  colonists 
were  Protestants,  except  a  few  in  Lord  Baltimoie's 
Roman  Catholic  colony  of  Maryland.  The  Puritans 
were  opposed  to  the  Roman  church  and,  as  their  name 
implied,  they  wished  to  see  the  church  purified  from 
every  ceremony  and  form  not  clearly  enjoined  by  the 
Bible.  The  Dutch  who  settled  in  New  York  were 
Protestants.  Mr.  Bancroft  says  :  "  The  Reformation 
led  to  European  settlements  on  the  Hudson.  The 
Netherlands  divide  with  England  the  glory  of  having 
planted  the  first  colonies  in  the  United  k*tates ;  they 
also  divide  the  glory  of  having  set  the  examjile  of 
public  freedom."' 

The  Welsh  and  Scotch  Presbyterians,  as  well  as  the 
Quakers,  were  the  first  emigrants  to  Pennsylvania. 
The  Scotch  and  Irish  carried  Presbyterian  ism  into 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 
The  Carolinas,  however,  were  ])rincipally  settled  by 
the  Huguenots  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edit  of 
Nantes.      In  Louisiana  the  bigotry  that  checked  the 

frowth  of  French  colonies,  was  clearly  displayed  when 
(Ouis  XIV.  refused  to  permit  about  four  hundi'ed 
Huguenot's  families  from  South  Carolina  to  settle  on 
the  Mississippi.  The  Germans  and  Poles  who  first 
came  to  the  country  were  Protestants,  and  their  de- 
scendants can  be  found  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  Missouri  and  other  Western  States.  The 
emigrants  who  have  come  to  the  United  States 
have  been  for  the  most  ])art  Protestants  and  have 
maintained  the  liberal  reliijious  character  of  the 
country. 

These  references   would  not  be  complete  without 

1.  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  Vol  2,  p.  256. 


-^1 


* 


Ml  ^ 


H' 


32 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


h 


£  ■■<, 


mentioning  the  Irish  Catholics  who  have  been  pouring 
into  the  United  States  by  thousands.  They  leave  their 
country  of  English  rule,  and  take  an  active  interest  in 
American  politics,  and  especially  those  governing  local 
affairs.  The  freedom  of  religion  and  separation  of 
Church  from  State,  if  not  actually  leading  to  the  con- 
version of  many  to  liberal  ideas,  at  least  detracts  from 
the  iniiuence  of  the  Pope  over  them. 

The  religious  denominations  of  this  country  differ  in 
beliefs,  but  nearly  all  are  Christian.  Christianity  in 
the  United  States  is  encouraged  by  the  government, 
but  there  is  no  union  between  Church  and  State.  The 
United  States  was  the  first  nation  to  deprive  itself  of 
all  legislative  control  over  religion,  and  by  the  first 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  it  is  declared  that 
"Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establish- 
ment of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  there- 
of." But,  although  there  is  religious  freedom  and  "  no 
religious  test  is  required  as  qualification  to  office,"'  the 
tendency  of  the  government  to  recognize  Christianity 
is  evidenced  by  laws  recognizing  the  Sabbath  and  pro- 
clamations from  the  Executive  providing  for  gener  1 
holidays  in  which  the  people  are  advised  to  thank 
God  for  his  guiding  providence  and  tender  mercies. 

Mr.  Justice  Story  in  commenting  on  the  sound 
policy  of  the  government  to  foster  and  encourage 
religion,  says : 

"  Every  American  colony,  from  its  foundation  down 
to  the  Revolution,  with  the  exception  of  Rhode  Island 
(if  indeed,  that  state  be  an  exception),  did  openly, 
by  the  whole  course  of  its  laws  and  institutions,  sup- 
port and  sustain,  in  some  form,  the  Christian  religion ; 
and  almost  invariably  gave  a  peculiar  sanction  to 
some  of  its  fundamental  doctrines.  And  this  has  con- 
tinued to  be  the  case  in  some  states  down  to  the 
present  period,  without  the  slighest  suspicion  that  it 


Pf 


1.  Article  VI.    Sec.  3. 


RELIGION. 


33 


was  against  the  princij^les  of  public  law  or  republican 
liberty.^ 

"  Indeed  in  a  republic,  there  would  seem  to  be  a  pecu- 
liar propriety  in  viewing  the  Christian  religion  as  the 
great  basis  on  which  it  must  rest  for  its  support  and 
permanence,  if  it  be,  what  it  has  ever  been  deemed  by 
its  truest  friends  to  be,  the  religion  of  liberty." 

The  principle  of  the  United  States  Constitution  in 
regard  to  religion  is  found  in  all  the  State  Constitu- 
tions.    The  New  York  Constitution  says  : 

"  The  free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  religious  pro- 
fession and  worship,  without  discnmination  or  pref- 
erence, shall  forever  be  allowed  in  this  state  to  all 
mankind." 

The  United  States  has  been  in  advance  of  England 
in  this  branch  of  political  science.  In  England  re- 
ligious toleration  was  not  granted  to  the  Unitarians 
until  1813 ;  to  the  Roman  Catholics  in  1829,  one 
year  after  the  abolition  of  the  Test  and  Corporation 
Act ;  and  to  the  Jews  in  1858. 

The  established  Church  of  England  is  the  Protestant 
Episcopal.  The  retention  of  the  doctrine  of  Church 
and  State  has  been  explained  by  the  Hon.  W.  E. 
Gladstone  by  assuming  that  as  the  family  relation 
demand  family  worship,  so  must  the  personality  of 
the  state  require  a  worship  peculiar  to  the  state. 
"  As  the  nation  fulfills  the  great  conditions  of  a  per- 
son— a  real  unity  of  being,  of  deliberating,  of  acting, 
of  suffering — and  these  in  a  definite  manner,  and  upon 
an  extended  scale,  and  with  immense  moral  functions 
to  discharge,  and  influences  to  exercise,  both  upon  its 
members  and  extrinsically  ;  therefore  it  has  that  kind 
of  clear,  large  and  conscious  responsibility  which  can 
only  be  met  by  its  specifically  professing  a  religion, 
and  offering,  through  its  organ  the  state,  that  worship 
which  shall  publicly  sanction  its  acts."^ 

1.  "  Kent's  Commentaries,"  p.  35.     Ilawle.    On  the  Constitution. 

2.  "  State  in  its  Relations  with  the  Church.— W.  E.  Gladstone,  Esq." 


34 


THE    DOMINION    OP    CANADA. 


■[t 


ii  ■' ' 


I 


111' 

r 


Eiigljind  allows  its  dependencies  to  do  much  as 
tluiv  i)lease  in  matters  of  worship.  Scotland  is  Pres- 
byterian, Ireland  is  Roman  Catholic,  although  that 
church  is  not  established  there,  and  Canada  has  re- 
tained the  Koman  Catholic  religion  as  the  virtually 
esta))lished  church.  The  numerical  strength  of  the 
relio-ious  denominations  in  Canada  is  as  follows: 


Uoinim 
Culholic. 

Cliurni  of 
England. 

I'resby. 
terian. 

Metliodist. 

IJnpti.st, 

^Ontario  .... 

320,839 

3G6,.539 

417,7'19 

591,503 

106,680 

*C2uebec  .... 

1,170,718 

68,797 

50,797 

39,221 

8,853 

*Nova  Scotia 

109,487 

00,255 

112,488 

50,811 

83,761 

*N.  Hrunswick. 

109,091 

46,768 

42,888 

34,514 

81  092 

t Manitoba  . 

H,G-)2 

23,206 

28,406 

18,648 

3,296 

*Hrit.  Columbia 

10,045 

7,804 

4,095 

3,516 

434 

*Piince  Ed.  Is. 

49,115 

7,192 

33,835 

13,485 

6,236 

}Tlie  Territories 

9,301 

9,976 

7,712 

6,910 

778 

*  Census  of  1881. 


f  Census  of  1886.    t  Census  of  1885. 


Canada  is  designated  in  Rome  "the  eldest  son  of 
the  Church."  In  the  province  of  Quebec  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  is  established,  and  the  Pope  always 
addresses  his  communications  to  the  "  Ecclesiastical 
Province  of  Quebec."  The  Church  of  Rome  has  al- 
■ways  controlled  the  thoughts  and  actions  of  the  French 
po[,ulation  under  all  governments,  and  ultramontanism 
would  remain  as  a  power  superior  to  that  of  the 
United  States. 

When  Canada  was  confirmed  to  England  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763,  the  Pope  took  care  that  the 
rights  of  the  secular  clergy  should  not  suffer  by  the 
cession,  and  secured  a  clause  in  the  treaty  protecting 
the  Church  from  Protestant  England. 

"  His  Britannic  Majesty  on  his  side  agrees  to  grant 
the  liberty  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Religion  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Canada.    He  will  consequently  give  the 


r 


HELIGTON. 


35 


mo.st  effectual  orders, that  his  new  Roman  Catholic  siil)- 
jects  may  possess  the  worshij)  of  their  religion,  accoid- 
in<^  to  the  rites  of  the  Romish  Church,  so  far  as  tlie 
laws  of  Great  Britain  j)ermit." 

If  the  limitation  in  tlie  last  part  of  the  article  had 
been  strictly  enforced,  the  laws  then  in  use  in  England 
would  have  been  strong  enough  seriously  to  cripple 
the  Roman  Church  in  Canada,  but  the  policy  of  the 
gfovernment  was  not  to  interfere  with  reliction  and  ihe 
rights  of  the  clergy,  so  long  as  there  was  no  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  See  of  Rome  or  direct  allegiance  to  the 
Pope.  The  guarantee  meant,  according  to  the  Com- 
mission to  General  Murray  and  the  ordinance  ])as8ed 
in  conformity  therewith,  that  present  laws  and  church 
rights  should  remain  until  a  time  to  be  fixed  l)y  the 
government.  "  The  laws  of  a  conquered  country  con- 
tinue until  they  are  altered  by  the  con(pieror."* 

King  George  III.  directed  Attorney  General  Thur- 
low  and  Solicitor  General  Wedderbourne  to  investi- 
gate "  the  defective  form  of  government  in  the  province 
iind  to  prepare  a  plan  of  civil  and  criminal  law  for  the 
said  province,  and  to  make  their  several  i-eports  there- 
on." 

The  reports^  they  submitted  to  the  King,  fully  state 
the  religious  condition  of  the  colony  and  recommend  a 
policy  whereby  "  the  inhabitants  of  Canada  should  be 
permitted  freely  to  profess  the  worship  of  their  relig- 
ion," and  the  clergy  retained' and  protected  in  all  those 
rights  not  inconsistent  with  the  sovereignty  of  the 
King.  From  information  concerning  the  Jesuits  and 
their  vast  estates  they  gave  their  opinion  that : 

"The  exercise  of  any  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  under 
powers  derived  from  the  See  of  Rome,  is  not  only  con- 
trary to  the  positive  laws  of  England  but  is  contrary 
to  the  principles  of  government,  for  it  is  an  invasion  of 


1.  Wheaton  III.,  App.  Sec.  4. 

2.  Dated  June  32,  1773  and  Dec.   6,   1773. 
Vol.  1,  p.  27. 


See  "Christie's  History." 


Ill* 


86 


THE    DOMINION    OP   CANADA. 


I 


M 


the  sovereignty  of  the  King,  wliose  H^preniacy  must 
extend  over  all  his  dominiouH,  nor  can  his  Majesty  by 
any  act  divest  himself  or  it. 

"The  establishment  of  the  Jesuits  and  of  the  other 
religious  orders,  as  corporations  holding  projjcrty  and 
jurisdiction,  is  also  repugnant  to  the  political  constitu- 
tion, which  Canada  must  receive  as  part  of  the  British 
dominions. 

"  By  the  rule  of  their  order  the  Jesuits  are  aliens  in 
every  government.  Other  monastic  orders  may  be 
tolerated,  because,  though  they  are  not  useful  subjects, 
still  they  are  subjects,  and  make  a  part  of  the  commu- 
nity ill  employed.  The  Jesuits  form  no  i)art  of  the 
community.  They,  according  to  their  institution,  neither 
allow  allegiance  nor  obedience  to  the  prince,  but  to  a 
foreign  power.  They  are  not  owners  of  their  estates,, 
but  trustees  for  pui-j^oses  dependent  upon  the  pleasuie 
of  a  foreigner,  the  general  of  their  order.  Three  great 
Catholic  states  *  have  upon  grounds  of  policy,  expelled 
them.  It  would  be  singular  if  the  first  Protestant  state 
in  Europe  should  protect  an  establishment  that  ere 
now  must  have  ceased  in  Canada,  had  the  French 
government  continued. 

"Uncertain  of  their  tenure  in  Canada,  the  Jesuit* 
have  hitherto  remained  very  quiet,  but  should  the  es- 
tablishment  be  tolerated  there,  they  would  soon  take 
the  ascendant  of  all  the  other  priests ;  the  education 
of  the  Canadians  would  be  entirely  in  their  hands,  and 
averse  as  they  may  be  at  present  to  France,  it  exceed s^ 
any  measure  of  credulity  to  suppose  that  they  would 
ever  become  truly  and  systematically  friends  to- 
Britain. 

"  It  is  therefore  equally  just  and  expedient  in  this 
instance  to  assert  the  sovereignty  of  the  King,  and  to 
declare  that  the  lands  of  the  Jesuits  are  vested  in  his 
Majesty,  allowin'^,  at  the  same  time,  to  the  Jesuits  now 


1.  Viz.,  Portugal  in  1759;  Spain  in  1764  ;  and  France  in  1767. 


RELIGION. 


87 


residing  in  Canada,  liberal  pensions  out  of  the  incomes 
of  their  estates." 

Bv  the  Quebec  Act*  in  1774,  all  those  professing 
the  belief  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  were  allowed 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  and  the  clergy  were 
maintained  in  11  their  rights,  even  those  of  levying 
tithes  and  holding  large  estates  in  mortmain.  Thus 
this  form  of  religion  was  established  by  law  in  Canada 
many  years  before  toleration  in  England.  The  cause 
for  this  policy  of  England,  unusually  liberal  for  the 
time,  was  the  fear  that  unless  great  concessions  were 
made  the  Canadians  would  join  the  Americans  in 
their  stiiiggle  lor  independence. 

The  Jesuits,  since  their  foundation  by  Ignatius 
Loyola  in  1534,  had  been  bound  by  a  peculiar  allegi- 
ance to  the  Pope,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  acknowledged 
the  superiority  of  no  other  earthly  mler.  Their  ex- 
istence could  not  be  tolerated  by  the  English  King, 
and  their  estates  were  declared  reverted  to  the  crown. 
This  act  of  George  III.  occurred  at  a  time  when  there 
was  much  opposition  to  the  order  throughout  the 
world,  and  Pope  Clement  XIV.,  in  an  effort  to  main- 
tain peace  in  the  church,  declared  a  bull,  Dominus 
ac  Redetnptor  Noster,  July  21st,  1773,  suppressing  the 
order  in  Canada  and  all  Christian  countries. 

The  government  dealt  most  liberally  with  them,  and 
it  was  not  until  1800,  after  the  death  of  Father 
Casot,  the  last  of  their  order,  that  it  took  possession  of 
the  estates.  The  property  was  sold,  and,  according  to 
an  act  of  the  legislature  of  Lower  Canada  passed  in 
1832,  the  proceeds  were  applied  to  education  only. 

Thus  the  legal  successors  to  the  estates  were  de- 
prived of  all  rights  to,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop 
of  all  jurisdiction  over  them,  through  the  action  of 
their  own  Pontiff,  as  well  as  that  of  their  King.  The 
order  was  regai'ded  as  legally  extinct  in  Canada,  as 
well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  was  so  treated 

1.  14Geo.  III.,  c.FsT 


■  '    I 


■I 


<'  I 


■I  i 


m  .1 


38 


THE    DOMINION    OP    CANADA. 


I 


il 


by  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  but  when  the  bull  of 
Pope  Pius  VII.  Soliciiitudo  Omnium  Ecciesiarum,  on 
August  7,  1814,  restored  the  order,  a  controversy  im- 
mediately arose  on  account  of  the  effor^:;  of  the  Jusuits 
to  recover  possession  of  the  large  amount  of  property 
which  they  had  owned  or  adequate  compensation  for 
its  loss.  Since  that  time  the  claim  of  the  Jesuits  that 
their  moral  rights  to  the  property  were  never  extin- 
guished has  resulted  in  many  bills  and  petitions 
presented  year  after  year  to  the  Legislature  of  Quebec, 
askinj  compensation,  and  the  strong  influence  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  has  been  used  toward  accomp- 
lishing this  object. 

As  Protestants  increased  in  number,  Episcopalian 
missionaries  were  sent  out  from  England,  but  they  did 
not  meet  with  any  adequate  encouragement  in  Lower 
Canada.  But  in  Upper  Canada,  where  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  was  not  so  powerful,  the  Church  of 
England  received  in  every  township,  appropriations  of 
lands,  called  "  Clergy  Reserves."  The  Constitutional 
Act,  1791,  Article  36,  allowed  the  Protestant  clergy 
one-seventh  of  all  grants  made  to  the  Crown.  Here 
we  find  an  instance  of  the  government  lending  all  its 
patronage  to  one  denomination,  and  there  arose  the 
same  feeling  of  discontent  which  has  so  often  ra'isen 
against  similiar  encouragement  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  Opposition  to  this  method  was  made  by  other 
sects,  especially  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  arguments 
were  produced  to  show  that  this  liberal  granting  of 
lands  was  unfair  to  the  settlers  and  a  drawback  to  the 
country's  prosperity.  The  lands  set  apart  for  the 
clergy  in  Upper  Canada  during  the  years  from  1787  to 
1833  were  given  only  to  three  denominations,  in  the 
following  portions :  Church  of  England,  22,345  acres  ; 
Church  of  Scotland,  1,160  acres;  and  Church  of 
Rome,  400  acres.^  Similar  to  this  method  was  that 
adopted  by  Governor  Sincole  to  encourage  immigration^ 

1  Seventh  Grievance  Committee's  Report,  p.  164. 


m 


RELIGION. 


3» 


whereby  large  estates,  sometimes  compiising  entire 
t'vvn ships,  were  given  to  persons  who  never  saw  them, 
but  derived  great  wealth  from  their  increased  valuation 
when  population  increased. 

The  lands  set  apart  in  Lower  Canada  for  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  were  of  enormous  extent.  In  addition 
to  those  which  were  acquired  by  Laval  there  were 
valuable  lands  belonging  to  the  Order  of  St.  Sulpice, 
The  entire  commercial  city  of  Montreal  was  held 
under  a  feudal  tenure  by  the  priests  of  St.  Sulpice. 
The  "Commissioners  of  Inquiry,"  apjiointed  in  1836, 
reported  that  the  island  was  1 40,000  acres  in  area,  and 
valued  at  .£3,475,000.*^  The  other  seigneuries  of  St. 
Sulpice  were  also  of  great  value.  After  the  union  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada  their  property  was  valued 
at  £520,000,  the  interest  on  which  was  .£30,000,  or 
more  than  seven  times  the  amount  received  by  the* 
Protestants  in  all  Canada.  The  French-Canadian  popu- 
lation, relying  on  the  increased  strength  that  they  had 
obtained  by  tlie  rebellion  of  1838,  procured  the  passage 
of  an  ordinance  granting  that  sum  of  money  to  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church. 

The  British  population  who  had  been  loyal  tO' 
England  in  the  rebellion  petitioned  the  Parliament 
not  to  allow  the  bill.  Then  the  whole  (question  again 
came  up  of  the  rights  of  ecclesiastical  orders  in  a  de- 
base on  the  incorporation  of  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sul- 
pice. 

The  Bishop  of  Exeter  spol^e  against  it  with  the 
usual  arguments,  and  showed  that  such  an  enormous 
sum  could  not  be  taken  from  the  treasury  of  the  pro- 
vince without  doing  great  harm.  The  bill  was  lost. 
But  by  the  Union  Act  the  Crown  surrendered  all  re- 
venues at  its  disposal  to  the  provincial  legislature.  The 
right,  thereiore,  to  legislate  on  the  Jesuit  and  other 
estates  was  based  on  this  concession,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic   church  worked  diligently   until,    after   the 

2.  Hanstrd  LVII,  198. 


40 


THE    DOMINION   OP   CANADA. 


R* 


w- 


•',1 
i4'' 


introduction  of  the  present  government,  they  succeed- 
ed in  accomplishing  their  long  sought  object. 

The  Jesuit  and  other  Roman  Catholic  institutions 
that  had  been  endowed  with  seigneuries  by  the  French 
Kinff  were  branches  of  the  greater  seminaries  at  Paris, 
and  intended  as  state  institutions  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  converting  the  savages  and  subjects  of  New 
France.  They  held  their  property  from  the  Crown  of 
France,  which  had  the  right  to  revoke  the  grant  when- 
ever it  seemed  desirable.  Theretore,  when  England 
conquered  Canada,  she  had  transfeiTed  to  her  all  the 
rights  of  disposal  which  France  enjoyed,  and  could 
dispose  of  the  funds  from  this  land  for  the  education 
of  British  subjects.*  This  was  done  at  the  Reforma- 
tion, when  the  funds  for  the  support  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  were  turned  over  to  the  Church  of 
England.  And  under  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
the  United  States,  in  regard  to  the  State  of  Michigan, 
succeeded  to  all  the  rights  that  existed  in  the  King  of 
France  prior  to  its  conquest  by  the  British,  and  among 
those  rights  that  of  dealing  with  the  signorial  estates 
of  lands  granted  out  as  seigneuries  by  the  French 
King,  after  a  forfeiture  had  occun-ed  for  non-fulfill- 
ment of  the  condition  of  the  fief.''  Therefore,  for  these 
reason?,  which  we  have  but  briefly  investigated,  the 
Jesuits  had  forfeited  all  rights  to  their  estates. 

In  1887  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  incorporated  by 
the  Quebec  Legislature,  and  when  Premier  Honore 
Mercier,  an  ardent  Catholic,  became  the  leader  one 
year  later,  he  succeeded  in  passing  an  act  through  the 
Provincial  Legislature  granting  to  the  order  $400,000 
in  full  settlement  of  their  claims,  at  the  same  time 
giving  the  Protestant  educational  fund  the  sum  of 
$60,000  as  a  sop  to  quiet  opposition.  The  fact  that 
the  province  is  distinctly  Roman  Catholic  was  indi- 

1.  Grotius  in  "  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,"  c.  8,  states  the  principle  that  the 
new  sovereign  succeeds  fully  to  the  righta  of  tlie  conquered  sovereign. 
3.  Wheaton,  280. 


r\    I 


RELIGION. 


41 


cated  by  an  accompanying  stipulation,  which,  it  is  safe 
to  say,  would  not  be  allowed  by  any  legislature  in  this 
Union,  since  it  provides  "that  any  agreement  made 
between  the  government  of  the  province  and  the 
Society  of  Jesus  will  be  binding  only  in  so  far  as  it 
shall  be  ratified  by  the  Pope  and  the  Legislature  of 
the  province,"  and  that  "  the  amount  of  compensation 
shall  remain  in  the  possession  of  the  government  of 
the  province  as  a  special  deposit,  until  the  Pope  has 
ratified  the  said  settlement  and  made  known  his  wishes 
respecting  the  distribution  of  such  money  in  the 
country." 

He  decided  that  only  $100,000  should  be  given  di- 
rectly to  the  Jesuits  and  the  remaining  $300,000  should 
be  distributed  among  the  ecclesiastical  institutions. 

On  November  6th,  1889,  the  provincial  government 
paid  over  that  amount  to  Father  Turgeon  who  repre- 
sented the  Jesuit  order. 

Thus  the  public  money  was  taken  from  the  treasury 
and  the  pockets  of  poor  taxed  and  tithe-burdened 
people  further  to  enrich  a  wealthy  church.  The 
Jesuit  Estates  Act  seems  to  be  beyond  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Provincial  Legislature  and  opposed  to  the 
civil  rights  of  the  Protestants. 

Protestantism  throughout  the  Dominion  is  alarmed 
at  the  surprising  aggression  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
through  synods,  unions  and  conferences  has  loudly 
proclaimed  against  the  act  as  "  an  unconstitutional 
and  dangerous  recognition  of  the  authority  of  the 
Pope,  and  invasion  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Queen. 
Its  unconstitutionality  is  based  upon  the  grounds  that 
the  British  North  America  Act  gives  the  Province 
of  Quebec  no  such  power  of  legislation,  and  that  the 
supremacy  of  the  Pope  is  recognized  in  the  Act. 

The  latter  is  undoubtedly  true,  since  the  Quebec  Act 
of  1774  and  that  of  31  George  IIL,  c.  31,  declare 
that  the  supremacy  of  the  Crown  shall  be  maintained 
as  established  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 


42 


THE    DOMINION    OP   CANADA. 


I  i 


I 


%ir 


The  friends  of  relii^ious  equality  looked  with  hope 
to  the  veto  of  the  Act  by  the  Dominion  Govern- 
ment, but  their  petitions  availed  nothing  against  a  fac- 
tion which  dared  not  incur  the  enmity  of  the  subjects 
of  Rome. 

Democracy  is  the  majority  and  the  majority  is 
sovereign,  and  government  is  according  to  the  voice 
of  the  people.  Since  tlie  people  of  the  Province  of 
Quebec  can  legislate  on  their  own  affairs,  and  want 
religious  teaching  by  the  government,  they  will  have 
it,  for  the  Roman  Catliolics  are  in  the  majority. 

The  control  of  elections  by  the  clergy  ha^  been 
open  in  all  matters  involving  religious  matters,  al- 
though in  secular  matters  they  pretend  to  be  neutral. 
The  several  writers  who  have  watched  the  Ultramon- 
tane movement  in  Canada  seem  to  agree  that  the  in- 
fluence of  the  bishops  and  priests  over  their  parishes 
has  created  a  strong  Papal  power  in  the  i^egislature 
of  the  Province  of  Quebec  and  the  Dominion  House 
of  Commons.  Mr.  Charles  Lindsey  in  an  article  in  the 
^*  North  American  Review  "  of  November  1877,  states 
that  the  policy  of  the  Catholic  Church  has  been  de- 
nial ed  in  a  Programme  Catholique^  to  which  canidates 
were  required  to  subscribe  before  they  could  secure 
any  chance  of  election.     He  says  : 

"  The  necessity  of  all  who  were  in  a  position  to 
exercise  legislative  power  being  in  perfect  accord  with 
the  Church,  was  insisted  on.  No  one  regarding  whom 
there  was  any  doubt  in  this  respect  could  be  elected. 

The  full  and  complete  adhesion  to  Roman  Catholic 
doctrines,  in  religion,  politics,  and  social  economy, 
was  the  first  and  i)rincipal  qualification  to  be  required 
in  a  candidate  by  Catholic  electors.  The  laws  relating 
to  marriage,  education,  and  the  erection  of  parishes, 
'vvere  described  as  being  in  conflict  with  the  claims 
of  the  Church ;  and  it  was  the  duty  of  Catholic  legis- 
lators to  amend  them  in  accordance  with  the  demands 
of  the  bishops,  with  a  view  of  placing  them  in  har- 


RELIGION. 


43 


mony  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church. 

Bishop  Bourget  has  been  instmmental  in  bringing 
about  the  present  situation  of  the  Church  in  Quebec 
toward  the  government,  and  has  always  maintained 
the  rights  of  the  priests  to  interfere  in  elections,  and 
declared  that  no  candidate  should  be  elected  "who 
desires  the  separation  of  Church  and  State ;  who 
sustains  propositions  condemned  by  the  Syllabus,  who 
rejects  the  intervention  of  the  Pope,  the  bishops  and 
the  priests,  in  the  aifairs  of  government."* 

In  these  questions  of  religion  in  politics  there  has 
been  very  little  free  discussion  or  opposition  by  the 
people  through  the  press.  The  papers  throughout 
the  province  are  boycotted  and  compelled  to  stop  pub- 
lication, if  they  continue  to  print  sentiments  contrary 
to  the  wishes  of  the  Holy  See.  The  editors  ar  gen- 
erally Catholics  and  some  papers  are  edited  with  the 
avowed  intention  of  aiding  the  clergy  in  political 
matters.  The  control  of  the  Church  is  very  apparent 
in  the  articles  published  in  the  "  Courrier  du  Canada," 
which  has  received  the  Papal  benediction ;  "  Journal 
de  Quebec,"  "  Courrier  de  St.  Hyacinthe,"  "  Bulletin 
Mensuel,"  "L'  Evenement"  and  "La  Verite." 

Political  proscription  on  account  of  religion  cannot 
be  tolerated  in  the  United  States,  where  the  interference 
of  the  clergy  in  political  matters  is  regarded  even  by 
Catholics  as  opposed  to  freedom  of  the  ballot  and  a 
means  of  corruption.  The  Pope's  temporal  power  in 
America  exists  only  in  theory.  He  is  regarded  by 
educated  Catholics  merely  as  the  head  of  their  religious 
organization.  Under  the  influence  of  our  government 
Roman  Catholics  are  beginning  to  appreciate  the  fact, 
that  the  people  are  sovereign  and  subject  to  no 
superior  authority  or  foreign  potentate.  Ultramon- 
tanism   may   exist   among  a  people,  ignorant,  bigoted 

1 .  Lettre  Pastorale  des  Evfiques  de  La  Proviace  Eccl^siastique  de  Quebec, 
Septembre  23,  1875. 


^*;i-l 


44 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


UJ 


l\ 


Mil*' 


and   controlled   by   priests,  but  not  among  a  people 
thoroughly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  independence. 

There  can  be  no  union  of  the  Province  of  Quebec 
with  the  United  States  as  long  as  its  entire  political 
system  is  subject  to  the  cunning  of  Jesuitism,  and  the 
insidious  policy  of  foreign  despotism.  If  it  were 
represented  as  a  State  in  Congress,  can  there  be  any 
doubt  but  that  its  peculiar  foreign  sentiments  would 
be  a  source  of  contentions  and  fractional  projects.  Its 
institutions  as  we  have  seen,  are  opposed  to  our  govern- 
ment and  can  never  in  their  present  shape  be  blended 
with  republicanism.  Yet,  annexation  would  tend  to 
weaken  the  jwwer  of  Jesuitism  and  its  control  over 
government.  Is  it  not  more  likely,  then,  that  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  would  encourage  the  Province  of 
Quebec  to  remain  in  its  present  dependency,  or  hold 
out  against  annexation  in  favor  of  an  independent 
Catholic  Nationality  ? 

EDUCATION. 

There  was  under  the  old  regime  no  general  system 
of  education  by  means  of  local  rates  and  taxes  for  the 
support  of  parochial  schools.  The  Church,  therefore, 
exercised  exclusive  control  over  educational  matters, 
and  its  pious  exertions  were  directed  rather  to  prepare 
young  men  for  the  priesthood,  than  to  train  the 
children  of  the  colonists  to  enlightened  ideas  and  the 
higher  callings  in  secular  life. 

The  children  of  the  habitans  grew  up  in  complete 
ignorance  of  those  matters  so  essential  to  the  growth 
of  a  new  country,  and  naturally  the  second  and  third 
generations  could  not  receive  proper  parental  help  in 
elementaiy  studies.  The  Jesuits  taught  the  catechism 
and  sometimes  reading  and  writing.  The  wealthy 
seigneurs  sent  their  sons  to  the  few  ecclesiastical  semin- 
aries. That  founded  in  1663  by  Laval  at  Quebec  was 
a  favorite,  and  was  increased  by  the  formation  of  the 


EDUCATION.  45 

smaller  seminary  five  years  later.  A  school  for  boys 
was  established  in  17-10  at  Montreal,  by  priests  of  St. 
Sulpice,  which  led  to  the  foundation  of  a  college  in 
1773. 

In  a  work  entitled  "  Preces  historique  et  statistique 
sur  I'instruction  publique  au  Canada,"  Mr.  Chauveau 
says  that  the  Recollects  made  some  attempt  to  instruct 
the  poorer  population,  but  their  efforts  seem  to  have 
been  directed  toward  the  elementary  education  of  the 
yoimg  savages  about  Three  Rivers.  He  says  that 
in  1632  Lejune  and  Lallemant,  two  Jesuit  fathers,^ 
founded  a  school  for  Indians  as  well  as  one  for  the 
children  of  the  colonists.  There  was  a  "  farm  school  " 
in  the  parish  of  St.  Joachim,  below  Quebec^  Girls 
were  educated  in  the  convents,  the  first  one  of  which 
was  that  of  the  Urauline  nuns.  In  1747  there 
were  houses  of  this  kind  in  the  principal  parishes,  and 
at  least  twelve  in  the  province  of  Quebec. 

The  American  colonies,  on  th  j  other  hand,  had  ad- 
vanced theories  of  legislation  and  the  duties  of  society 
toward  their  members.  The  law  made  provision  for  a 
number  of  social  wants  which  were  very  inadequately 
felt  in  Canada.  The  character  of  American  civiliza- 
tion and  progress  received  its  birth  in  New  England, 
through  a  system  of  public  education.  The  code  of 
1650^  provided  for  established  schools  in  every  town- 
ship, smce  it  is  "  one  chief  object  of  Satan  to  keej^  men 
from  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  by  persuading 
from  the  use  of  tongues,  to  the  end  that  learning  may 
not  be  buried  in  the  graves  of  our  forefathers,  in 
church  and  commonwealth,  the  Lord  assisting  our  en- 
deavours." The  law  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  sup- 
port the  schools  under  heavy  penalties,  and  enforced 
the  sending  of  children  to  school  by  parents.  Those 
who  refused  to  send  their  children  were  heavily  fined^ 
and  if  they  continued  in  resistance,  the  parent  was  de- 

1.  Francis  Parkham,  "  The  Old  Rtgime  In  Canada,"  p.  163. 

2.  See  also  "De  Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America." 


iA' 


1    ' 
I    r 

I 

.1; 


46 


THE   DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


m 


V', 


prived  of  his  child  in  order  that  it  might  be  educated. 
The  father  was  deprived  of  his  natural  rights  for  the 
benefit  of  society  or  the  common  well  being. 

When  the  English  assumed  control,  the  progress  of 
education  in  Canada  was  greatly  advanced.  In  1787, 
a  Committee  of  the  Executive  Council,  instructed  by 
Lord  Dorchester  to  make  a  report  and  suggest  a  rem- 
edy for  the  lack  of  instruction  in  the  country,  reported 
that  in  many  of  the  smaller  villages  only  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  people  knew  how  to  read  and  write. 

In  1801  Lower  Canada  received  its  first  College,  by 
^he  authority  of  the  government,  under  the  name  of 
Institution  Royale,  by  an  "  Acte  pour  etablir  les 
ecoles  gratuites  et  pour  le  progres  de  Tlnstruction." 

The  first  legislative  enactment  in  Upper  Canada  pro- 
viding for  schools  was  that  of  1807,  providing  for  a 
classical  and  mathematical  school  in  each  of  the  eight 
districts  into  which  the  province  was  then  divided, 
and  a  grant  of  £80  a  year  for  the  support  of  each.  In 
1816  a  law  was  passed  appropriating  $24,000  a  year, 
for  the  support  of  common  or  elementary  schools. 
Four  years  after,  in  1820,  settlers  in  the  Earl  of  Sel- 
kirk's colony,  now  Manitoba,  had  founded  both 
Roman  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant  schools. 

It  has  been  generally  noticeable  throughout  Canada 
that  Catholic  parents  do  not  wish  to  send  their  child- 
ren to  schools  conducted  by  Protestants,  and  the 
Catholic  clergy  have  never  permitted  them  to  do  so. 
It  has  been  found  necessary  in  some  provinces  to  main- 
tain separate  schools  for  both  sects. 

The  first  organization  of  a  regular  school  system  in 
Quebec  was  the  result  of  a  law  passed  by  the  legisla- 
ture in  1829  entitled,  "Acte  pour  1' encouragement  de 
I'education  elementaire."  Since  that  time  the  growth 
has  been  steady,  and  schools  have  increased  rapidly. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  Mr.  Paul  de  Cases,*  of 
the  Bureau  of  Education  of  Quebec,  the  number  of 

1.  "  L'Instruction  Publique  dans  La  Province  de  Qu6bec." 


^ 


EDUCATION.  47 

primary  schools  in  1836  was  1321,  with  about  30,000 
scholars;  in  1847  the  number  was  1613,  with  63,281 
scholars;  and  in  1854  the  number  of  schools  had  in- 
creased to  2,795,  and  of  the  scholars  to  119,737. 

When  the  provinces  of  Upper  Canada  (Ontario) 
and  Lower  Canada  (Quebec)  were  united  in  1841,  a 
law  was  passed  establishing  a  common  school  system 
in  which  there  should  be  "  Roman  Catholic  separate 
schools  "  in  Upper  Canada.  Thus  there  was  a  separate 
system  of  schools  for  Protestants  and  Catholics. 

In  the  British  North  America  Act  of  1867,  section  93, 
it  was  provided  that  each  province  may  make  laws  in 
relation  to  education  on  condition  that : 

"  Nothing  in  any  such  law  shall  prejudicially  effect 
any  Right  or  Privilege  with  respect  to  Denominational 
Schools  which  any^  class  of  persons  have  by  Law  in 
the  Province  at  the  Union."  In  the  school  acts,  there- 
fore, in  the  provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  Manitoba,  •" 
and  the  Northwest  Territories,  equal  provision  is  made 
for  Protestant  and  Catholic  schools,  in  an  endeavor  to 
maintain  peifect  harmony  between  the  English  and 
French  populations. 

Taking  general  notice  of  education  in  the  Dominion 
we  may  divide  it  into  three  classes :  1.  Common  or 
Elementary.  2.  Secondary.  3.  Higher  and  Univer- 
sity. 

The  elementary  schools  are  distinguished  as  Public 
*ind  Separate.  Those  in  the  provinces  less  influenced 
by  the  French,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Prince 
Edward  Island,  are  non-sectarian,  but  it  is  demanded 
that  they  be  Christian  and  not  atheistic.  In  British 
Columbia  "the  highest  morality  is  to  be  inculcated, 
but  no  religious  creed  or  dogma  taught." 

In  the  provinces  where  separate  schools  are  main- 
tained, it  is  provided  that  Roman  Catholic  tax- 
payers can  elect  to  support  them  and  be  exempted 
from  paying  the  public  school  rates.  These  Catholic 
schools  are  conducted  on  an  independent  basis,  but  sub- 


48 


THE    DOMINION    OP    CANADA. 


> 


II'.,*' 


ject  to  the  conditions  of  the  general  regulations  of  the 
Educational  department  in  each  province. 

Although  the  systems  of  education  are  similar  in 
the  various  provinces,  they  differ  in  application. 
Quebec  is  divided  into  scholastic  municipalities,  under 
the  control  of  five  public  school  commissioners.  Where 
there  are  separate  schools  they  are  under  the  super- 
vision of  three  syndics  and  receive  aid  from  the 
government  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children 
that  they  instruct.  General  education  throughout  the 
province  is  under  the  control  of  a  Superintendent  of 
rublic  Instruction,  assisted  by  a  coi'ncil  of  thirty-five, 
which  is  divided  into  committees  acting  separately. 
The  Catholic  committee  has  20  members,  and  the 
Protestant  15. 

The  Protestant  schools  are  similar  to  our  own,  and 
the  reading  of  the  Bible  is  the  only  religious  instruc- 
tion ;  but  in  the  Catholic  schools  the  catechism  ia 
taught,  and  the  young  children  are  early  trained  to  be 
faithful  members  of  the  church  under  the  guidance  of 
nuns  and  cures. 

The  number  of  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools 
in  1889  was:  Roman  Catholics,  154,429 ;  Protestants,. 
27,973.> 

The  province  of  Ontario  has  an  educational  system 
bailed  on  municipal  organization,  and  managed  by 
trustees  elected  bv  the  rate  payers.  There  is  also  a 
separate  corporation  of  trustees  for  separate  schools 
elected  by  Catholic  supporters.  These  schools  are 
provided  for  in  proportion  to  their  attendance.  The 
general  control  of  education  is  vested  in  the  Minister  of 
Education.  The  schools  in  this  province  in  1886  were 
as  follows ;  public  schools,  5,437,  with  487,496  pupils ; 
separate  schools,  224,  with  29,199  pupils. 

In  the  province  of  Manitoba  the  Board  of  Education 
is  divided  into  two  sections.  The  first  section  is  com- 
posed of  twelve  members,  presided  over  by  an  oflScer 

1.  Annual  Report  on  Education  in  Quebec,  188t. 


EDUCATION. 


49 


called  •*  Superintendent  of  the  Protestant  Schools,"  and 
appointed  by  the  Governor  in  Council.  The  second  sec- 
tion is  composed  of  eight  members  and  a  superintend- 
ent, who  manage  the  separate  schools.  Each  section 
acts   independently,   and    receives    money   from    the 

fovernmeut  "  according  to  the  relative  proportion  of 
'rotestant  and  Catholic  children  of  school  age  in  the 
province,  as  obtained  by  the  school  census  taken  annu- 
ally." The  province  is  mapped  out  into  "  school  dis- 
tricts," and  the  mode  of  supporting  education  is  decided 
by  each  district. 

There  were  in  1886,  496  schools  or  districts  con- 
nected with  the  Protestant  section,  with  15,920  pupils. 
The  statistics  of  Catholic  schools  are  uncertam,  but 
they  may  be  estimated  at  about  55,  with  an  attendance 
of  2100. 

The  Northwest  Territories  have  an  educational  sys- 
tem unaer  the  control  of  a  Board  of  Education,  com- 
posed of  five  members,  two  Catholics,  two  Protestants, 
and  a  chairman  in  the  person  of  the  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor. 

Th3  statistics  for  1888,  show:  Protestant  schools, 
90  ;   pupils,  2425.     Catholic  schools,  21 ;  pupils,  719. 

The  provinces  do  not  issue  their  reports  at  the  same 
date,  but  from  statistics  available,  the  attendance  in 
the  schools  in  those  provinces  having  a  single  common 
school  system,  is  as  follows  '} 

Nova  Scotia,  1888;  schools,  2166  in  summer;  2045 
in  winter.     Pupils,  105,"""'-. 

New  Brunswick,  1888 ;  schools,  1542.  Pupils,  69,- 
063. 

British  Columbia,  1887;  schools,  87.     Pupils,  5179. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  1887 ;  schools,  437.  Pupils, 
22,460. 

Secondary  education  is  obtained  in  high  schools 
or  collegiate  institutes  and  is  intended  to  prepare 
students  for  professional  pursuits  or  the  universities. 

1.  Compiled  from  Annual  Reports  on  Education. 


»:il 


50 


THE    DOMINION    OP   CANADA. 


'r 


V,y* 


The  studies  uie  on  a  liidier  ffrade  than  those  of  the 
elementary  schools,  anil  incliule  modern  languages^ 
the  classics,  higher  mathematics  and  the  various 
studies  preparatory  to  higher  education.  In  addition 
to  legislative  and  municipal  grants  these  schools  are 
for  the  most  jiart  supported  by  fees  from  the  pupils. 

The  number  of  high  schools  in  Ontario  in  1886 
wjis  109,  with  15,344  pupils.  In  addition  to  these  are  : 
model,  art,  normal  and  mechanics'  institutes.  Quebec 
had  in  1888,  55  Protestant  secondary  schools  with 
6,652  pupils,  and  486  Catholic,  with  67,579  pupils. 
The  normal  schools  are :  Laval  at  Quebec  ;  Jacques 
Cartier  and  McGill  at  Montreal.  The  first  two  are 
strictly  French  and  Catholic,  and  have  about  184 
pupils ;  the  last  is  English  and  Protestant. 

Manitoba  has  a  normal  school  for  the  training  of 
teachers  and  a  collegiate  school  at  Winnipeg,  which  had 
in  1886  an  attendance  of  114  pupils.  ITie  students 
generally  enter  Manitoba  University,  but  a  few  go  to 
colleges  in  the  East. 

The  higher  educational  institutions  bear  comparison 
with  those  in  the  United  States,  and  there  is  a  certain 
bond  of  friendship  between  them.  Professors  in 
American  colleges  accept  positions  in  Canadian  uni- 
versities, and  there  is  a  constant  passing  back  and 
forth  of  students,  many  Canadians  preferring  Ameri- 
can colle.< 

The  s  and  universities  of  Canada  like  those  of 

this  y  are  generally  under  denominational  con- 

trol, V  free  from  sectarian  tests.  Instruction  is  given 
to  5,000  students  in  colleges  situated  in  the  Maritime 
Provinces.  The  Province  of  Ontario  stands  first  in  the 
number  of  high  educational  Institutions. 

The  principal  seats  of  learning  in  the  Dominion  are : 
The  University  of  Queen's  College,  at  Kingston ; 
University  of  Trinity  College,  and  the  Toronto 
University  at  Toronto ;  the  Western  University, 
Albert  University,  Ottawa  College,  and  the  University 


EDUCATION.  51 

of  Victoria  College  at  Cobourg.  The  last  is  affiliated 
with  Victoria  University  at  Montreal.  The  Province 
of  Quebec  has  also  the  great  Laval  University  at 
Quebec  ;  McGill  University  at  Montreal ;  and  Bishop's 
College  at  Lennox ville.  Nova  Scotia  has  King's 
College  at  Windsor ;  University  of  Acadia  Collef'e  at 
Wolf  ville  ;  and  Dalhousie  and  the  Presbyterian  Cohege 
at  Halifax.  Besides  these  there  are  many  smaller 
affiliated  colleges,  several  of  them  being  for  the 
education  of  womei.. 

Maintoba  has  a  University  and  affiliated  colleges. 

The  Dominion  government  has  bound  itself  by 
treaty  to  maintain  schools  among  the  Indian  and  half- 
breed  population  of  the  Northwest.  Many  of  these 
schools  are  missionary  and  yet  under  the  control  of  a 
church. 

The  English  speaking  half-breeds  are  educated  in 
Episcopal  and  Presbyterian  schools.  The  French  half- 
breeds  are  Catholic  and  under  the  control  of  Jesuit 
teachers.  The  Canadian  government,  pursuing  its  usual 
liberal  policy,  encourages  and  aids  Catholic  Indian 
schools  as  well  as  those  of  other  denominations.  By 
annexation  of  the  northwest  we  snould  have  the  old 
difficulty  of  administering  Indian  affairs,  and  have  to 
encounter  strong  opposition  from  religious  denomina- 
tions before  we  could  form  a  uniform  non-sectarian 
system.  The  Indian  school  s;  stem  of  this  country 
does  not  differ  in  some  respects  from  that  of  Canada. 
In  addition  to  the  regular  governmental  schools,  we 
have  "  contract  schools,"  which  are  supported  by  the 
religious  bodies  of  the  country  and  receive  aid  from 
the  government.  These  schools  educate  the  children 
at  a  cheaper  rate  than  in  the  government  schools,  and 
have  proved  very  beneficial  auxiliaries.  The  Koman 
Catholic  schools  have  been  doing  good  work  among 
the  Indians,  and  their  interest  has  been  shown  by  the 
fact  that,  during  the  year  1888,  they  were  awarded 
$347,672,  out  of  an  appropriation  of  $476,190,  foi 


«2 


THE    DOMINION   OF   CANADA. 


I 


W: 


ISj,  ■>(! 


maintaining  government  pupils ;  while  during  the 
year  1889,  they  received  $354,491,  out  of  a  total  of 
$506,994. 

The  recent  opposition  to  General  T.  J  Morgan,  Com- 
missioner of  Indian  Affairs,  and  Dr.  Dorchester,  Super- 
intendent of  Indian  Schools,  was  led  by  Archbishop 
Ireland  and  Bishop  Riordan,  who  assert  that  they 
discriminated  against  Roman  Catholics  by  removing 
teachers  because  of  their  religious  belief,  and  that 
they  desire  to  abolish  the  "  contract  school  system." 

The  policy  of  allowing  the  Indian  schools  to  become 
<l3nominational,  has  already  caused  general  dissatisfac- 
tion. It  is  evident  that  the  system,  in  order  to  meet 
with  popular  fa  '^or,  must  be  non-sectarian. 

The  differenc  between  the  public  school  systems  of 
the  two  countries  affords  a  subject  of  interesting  dis- 
cussion. The  provinces,  which  have  the  double  system, 
contain  nearly  all  the  French  Catholics  of  the  Domin- 
ion, while  the  provinces  having  the  single  system  are 
composed  of  elements  more  similar  to  our  own  popula- 
tion. The  systems  in  the  Dominion  are  admirable,  but 
the  maintenance  of  the  sectarian  schools  for  Roman 
Catholics  must  be  a  cause  of  future  dispute  and  a 
barrier  against  the  amalgamation  of  the  French  race 
with  the  American. 

The  great  body  of  the  American  people  will  never 
permit  any  part  of  their  free  and  common  school  sys- 
tem to  be  imder  the  control  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  "Free  church,  free  school,"  is  their  cry, 
since  an  established  religion  and  sectarian  schools 
obstruct  nationality  and  make  the  people  narrow- 
minded.  It  is  the  chief  corner-stone  of  our  political 
institutions,  and  from  the  first  establishment  of  the 
States,  education  has  been  a  matter  in  which  every 
man  was  boun^"  to  contribute. 

The  theory  is  a  sound  one,  that  the  State  being  the 
embodiment  of  the  concentrated  wisdom  of  the  people, 
-can  best  be  left  to  determine  the  best  lines  of  secular 


EDUCATION. 


53 


education.  When  the  State  permits  religious  teaching 
in  free  schools,  it  interferes  with  the  I'ights  of  Hebrew 
and  other  denominations,  and  has  no  right  to  tax  other 
denominations  for  these  schools. 

For  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  appropriation  of 
public  money  to  sectarian  or  religious  purposes,  a 
recently  forjned  organization,  "The  National  League 
for  the  Protection  of  American  Institutions,"  has  pro- 
posed the  following  amendment  to  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution, which  may  soon  be  presented  to  Congress  : 

"  No  State  shall  pass  any  law  respecting  an  estab- 
lishment of  riiigion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof,  or  use  its  property,  money,  or  credit,  or  any 
power  of  taxation,  or  authorize  either  to  be  used,  for 
the  purpose  of  founding,  maintaining  or  aiding  any 
church,  religious  denomination  or  religious  society  or 
any  institution  or  imdertaking  under  sectarian  or  ec- 
clesiastical control." 

The  condition  of  schools  under  Catholic  control  in 
Canada  is  not  such  as  to  indicate  any  improvem'  nt 
upon  our  system.  We  do  not  propose  to  allow  i^.e 
religious  difficulty  to  arise  in  schools  which  are  in- 
tended to  make  good  American  citizens,  and  not  sub- 
jects of  Rome.  Religion  is  a  subject  properly  left  to 
the  parent,  who  has  a  right  to  determine  what  creed 
the  child  should  embrace. 

The  habits  of  truth  and  moral  living  are  taught  in 
our  schools,  and  not  the  doctrine  of  any  one  religion. 


II 


CHAPTER  III— GEOGRAPHICAL. 


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TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  continent  of  Nortli  America  is  simple  in  its 
structure.  Tlie  mountain  chains  extend  in  one  direction 
^nd  are  nearly  parallel  with  the  coasts.  Those  in  the 
East  taking  a  southweste  li,  and  those  in  the  West,  a 
southeastern  direction.  The  Eastern  range  or  system 
of  mountains,  called  the  Alleghanies  or  A  Ian  tic  High- 
lands, extend  from  the  northern  coast  of  Labrador, 
Avhere  the  mountains  are  somewliat  isolated,  to  the 
Lills  of  Georgia  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  whole 
of  this  range,  except  the  mountains  in  the  })rovinces  of 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  is  in  the  United 
States.  The  AVestern  range,  called  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, or  Pacific  Highlands,  is  the  longest  in  the  world, 
and  extends  from  the  northern  shore  oi  Alaska  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  from  a 
geo»w>^ical  point  of  view  is  continued  in  the  South 
American  Andes. 

These  two  ranges  of  mountains  divide  the  continent 
into  three  great  geographical  unities.  The  first 
includes  that  long  and  comparativ^ely  narrov  strip  of 
country  between  the  Alleghany  range  and  the  Alantic 
Ocean.  The  second  unity  embraces  that  wider  strip 
of  land  between  the  '  ocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  third  unity  comprises  all  the  central 
plain  between  the  two  mountain  systems,  and  in  its 
vast  expanse  extends  from  the  cold  regions  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  warm  country  by  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

The  geographical  unities  on  this  continent  do  not 
seem   to   have  had  the  same   effect  as  in  Europe  of 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


65 


marking  the  boundaries  of  nations.  History  lias  shown 
many  cases,  like  that  of  the  Pyrenees  between  France 
and  Spain,  where 

"  Mountains  interposed 
Make  enemies  of  nations,  who  had  else, 
Like  kindred  drops,  been  mingled  into  one." 

Altiiousxh  the  first  colonies  confined  themselves  for 
the  most  part  to  the  territory  in  the  first  unity,  the 
nation  which  they  established  has  found  little 
■difficulty,  through  modern  facilities  of  communication, 
in  extending  its  government  across  these  natural 
barriers,  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  United  States  has 
had  a  peculiar  gro^vth  in  an  era  of  invention,  and  rail- 
I'oads  and  scientifically  constructed  bridges  make  easy 
intercourse  among  towns  and  counties,  even  in  the 
newest  regions.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  3,556,500 
square  miles,*  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  part  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  on 
the  south,  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of 
Mexico ;  on  the  west,  by  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  and  on 
the  north,  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  comprises  all  of  British 
North  America  with  the  exception  of  New-found  land, 
and  is  according  to  the  census  measurements  8,470,257 
square  miles  in  area. 

When  we  examine  the  boundary  line  which  separates 
the  two  countries,  w^e  find  that  it  is  partly  artificial 
and  partly  natural.  The  natural  boundary  line  is  that 
formed  by  the  chain  of  great  lakes,  in  connection  with 
the  St.  LciwTence  river,  and  the  continuation  of  the 
Alleghany  range  in  the  water  sheds  of  the  Maine 
boundary.  The  artificial  line  is  that  agreed  upon  after 
four  treaties  with  Great  Britain,  and  extends  for  the 
most  part  along  the  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude 
eastward   to   the   Lake   of  the  Woods,   after  which 

1.  This  includes  tlie  area  of  Alaska  (estimated  at  530,000  square  miles), 
which  lies  uorth-west  of  the  British  possessions,  and  is  separated  from 
them  by  a  boundary  line  for  the  most  part  artificial. 


'•I 


56 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


mi 


it  puraues  a  south-east  direction  through  a  succession 
of  small  lakes  to  Lake  Superior.  But  there  is  a  slight 
ridge  or  table  land  extending  along  this  artificial 
boundary,  and  its  presence  is  noticed  by  the  fact  that 
the  rivers  south  of  it  flow  towards  the  Mississippi, 
while  those  north  of  it  descend  into  Hudson's  Bay, 
the  Mackenzie  river  and  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

There  is,  therefore,  a  great  natural  barrier  dividing 
the  United  States  from  that  portion  of  the  Dominion 
which  is  more  thickly  populated  and  differs  in 
ethnical  character.  On  the  otner  hand  the  part  of  the 
Dominion  lying  on  the  more  artificial  boundary  is  yet 
in  its  infancy,  and  nearly  the  same  in  ethnical 
character. 

CLIMATE    AND    PRODUCTS. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  climate  of  North 
America,  it  may  be  noticed  that  it  does  not  have  as 
much  influence  on  the  people,  and  manner  and  means 
of  living,  in  the  two  countries  as  one  would  suppose, 
owing  to  the  continent's  prolongation  southward  and 
its  backbone  of  mountains.  Although  the  average 
heat  and  cold  in  the  two  countries  may  not  be  without 
its  influence  upon  the  food  and  clothing  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  tends  to  create  different  wants  and 
pursuits,  yet  the  difference  in  climate  ia  too  small 
generally  to  cause  any  striking  diversity  in  character. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison  of  temperatures  and 
agricultural  resources,  scientists  have  divided  the 
continent  into  six  territorial  unities : 

1.  That  comprising  the  countries  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America  extending  to  the  30th  parallel  of 
north  latitude. 

2.  That  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  from  latitude  25°  to  50°  north, 
and  from  longitude  60°  to  90°  west. 

3.  That  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean  from  latitude  30°  to  50°  north. 


CLIMATE  AND  PRODUCTS. 


57 


4.  That  formed  by  a  continuation  of  the  third  ter- 
ritorial unity  toward  the  north,  from  latitude  50°  to 
70°  north,  and  from  longitude  115°  to  165°  west. 

5.  The  basins  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers 
from  latitude  29°  to  48°  north,  and  from  longitude  75° 
to  11 5°  west. 

6.  All  north  of  the  fifth  unity  from  latitude  49°  to 
80°  north,  and  from  longitude  60°  to  140°  west. 

Therefore,  the  provinces  of  Ontario,  with  i.e  excep- 
tion of  its  western  extention.  New  Brunswick,  Nova 
Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island  and  Quebec,  with  the 
exception  of  it:;  northern  part,  lie  in  the  same  territoral 
unity  with  that  group  of  our  states  extending  south 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 
The  climate  of  this  territorial  unity  is  influenced  by 
the  Gulf  Stream,  which 'passes  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
taking  a  northerly  direction  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
by  Iceland  toward  the  British  Isles  and  the  northwest 
of  Europe  generally. 

The  climate  of  the  maritime  provinces  of  Canada 
resembles  that  of  the  British  Isles.  The  proximity 
of  the  sea  tends  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  air  and 
make  it  uniform,  but  farther  inland  the  diilerences 
between  the  temperatures  in  summer  and  winter 
become  greater.  Therefore,  in  the  provinces  of 
Quebec  and  Ontaria  the  summers  are  hot  and  short, 
and  the  winters  very  long  and  severe,  but  owing  to 
the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the  cold  and  heat  are 
not  so  perceptible  as  one  would  expect.  Of  the  east- 
ern provinces  Quebec  is  the  coldest,  and  has  the 
greatest  extremes  in  temperature.  During  the  season 
from  the  early  part  of  December  until  March  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  many  of  the  inhabitants 
remain  in  the  ^^cinity  of  their  homes,  on  account  of 
the  danger  and  inconvenience  of  travel.  When  the 
thermometer  runs  as  low  as  26°  F.  the  St.  Lawrence  river 
is  frozen  over  and  the  inhabitants  on  both  sides  the 
river  celebrate  the  event,  and  establish  direct  com- 
munication over  the  icy  plain. 


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58 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


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Taking  brief  notice  of  agriculture  and  the  natural 
resources  of  these  provinces,  we  find  that  the  soil  of 
Ontario  is  very  fertile,  that  of  Quebec  is  of  average 
fertility,  and  as  we  approach  the  ocean  the  country  be- 
comes barren. 

Ontario  is  the  most  southern  of  the  provinces,  and 
its  carefully  prepared  statistics  show  that  its  advan- 
tageous situation  near  the  Great  Lakes  makes  the  crops 
heavy  and  of  good  quality.  It  is  the  great  grain-grow- 
ing province  of  the  Dominion,  the  crops  in  1888  yield- 
ing 20,284,346  bushels  of  wheat.  This  is  a  more  favor- 
able return,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  inhabitants 
and  average  yield  per  acre,  than  that  of  either  of  the 
adjacent  states,  Minnesota,  Michigan  and  New  York. 
The  same  richness  in  agricultural  resources  is  shown 
in  the  production  of  other  crops.  The  average  yield 
of  bushels  per  acre  from  1882  to  1888  has  been  as 
follows ;  fall  wheat,  19.8 ;  spring  wheat,  15.7  ;  bar- 
ley, 26.1;  oats,  35.7;  peas,  20.7;  beans,  21.1;  rye, 
16.4;  corn,  67.5.  The  fruit  crops  have  become  cele- 
brated, and  apples  and  grapes  are  sent  to  the  markets 
of  American  cities  in  large  quantities. 

Ontario  is  181,800  square  miles  in  area,  and  there 
are,  according  to  the  last  census,  304,630  persons  en 
gaged  in  agriculture.  The  province  is  well  adapted 
to  the  raising  of  cattle  and  sheep  because  of  the  invig- 
orating character  of  the  winters  and  plentiful  supply 
of  feed,  but  less  attention  is  paid  to  pasture  land  than 
to  grain  production. 

There  is  still  a  great  portion  of  the  country  covered 
by  forests,  which  contain  a  greater  variety  of  trees  than 
any  of  the  other  provinces.  In  the  districts,  near 
Lake  Erie  especially,  there  may  be  found  black  walnut,, 
sassafras,  chestnut,  dogwood,  locust  and  other  trees  in- 
digenous to  our  western  states. 

Among  the  mineral  wealth  of  Ontario  can  be  found 
nearly  all  the  metals  predominating  in  the  useful  arts, 
but  only  small  quantities  have  yet  been  yielded,  with 


I 


CLIMATE  AND  PRODUCTS. 


5^ 


the  exception  of  salt  in  the  Lake  Hnron  distncts  and 
iron  in  the  vicinity  of  Kingston.  Productive  wells  of 
petroleum  are  being  worked  with  greater  success  each 
year,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bothwell  and 
Petrolia.  Of  the  20,80-1,384  gallons  of  crude  petro- 
leum produced  in  Canada  in  1887,  about  15,000,000 
gallons  were  from  the  wells  of  Ontario.^ 

Passing  now  toward  the  east,  we  find  that  agricul- 
ture in  Quebec  is  most  productive  in  that  hilly  country 
extending  from  the  Alleghany  range  to  the  St.  Law- 
rence river,  and  aloncr  the  latter's  northern  bank. 
This  province  is  the  great  market  garden  of  Canada^ 
since  the  French  inhabitants  do  not  undertake  farming 
on  a  large  scale,  but  produce  a  great  variety  of  grain 
and  fruit. 

The  province  is  developing  into  a  stock-raising  and 
dairying  country.  The  exports  of  butter  and  clieese 
are  largely  on  the  increase.  The  maple  trees  afford 
an  abundance  of  syrup  and  sugar,  and  in  the  more 
northern  districts  the  beech,  white  pine  and  elm  are 
found. 

The  principal  minerals  of  Quebec  are  phosphates, 
silver,  iron,  gold,  asbestos  and  copper.  About  ninety- 
six  per  cent,  of  the  phosphate  exported  from  Canada 
is  produced  in  Quebec.  In  1889  the  output  of  asbes- 
tos amoimted  to  nearly  5000  tons.  It  is  found  in  the 
Laurentiau  geographical  formation  extending  from 
Labrador  westward  beyond  the  Great  Lakes,  and  in 
the  region  between  the  St.  Lawrence  river  and  our 
national  boundary.  Prof.  J.  T.  Donald  informs  us  of 
this  asbestos  product  in  the  "  Popular  Science  Month- 
ly," of  February,  1890,  and  says:  "Although  good 
workings  occur  elsewhere,  the  great  majority  of  the 
mines  are  along  the  line  of  the  Quebec  Central  Rail- 
way, which  runs  from  the  City  of  Quebec  to  Sher- 
brooke,  the  capitol  of  the  so-called  Eastern  Townships 
of  Canada,  and  cluster  around  two  points  a  short  dis- 

1.  Statistical  Abstract  and  Record,  Canada.    Ottawa,  1889, 


t  i 


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60 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


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W- 

M,^'.. 


tance  apart  and  aboufc  midway  between  tlie  two  cities." 
He  states  that  tlie  United  Asbestos  Company,  Limited, 
of  London,  England,  that  controlled  the  Italian  mines, 
has  turned  its  attention  to  the  Canadian  field  and  is 
0))erating  on  a  large  scale. 

As  we  approach  the  seaboard  we  notice  that  as  the 
agricultural  possibilities  decrease,  other  natural  pro- 
ductions become  more  prominent.  Thus  in  those  pro- 
vinces on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  agriculture  does 
not  receive  as  much  attention  as  lumbering,  mining  and 
fishing. 

The  southern  coasts  are  rocky  and  not  available  for 
the  production  of  crops,  but  farther  inland  the  lands 
once  covered  by  forests  are  capable  of  cultivation  suf- 
ficient to  supply  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants  of  these 
provinces.  The  most  fertile  lands  are  those  formed  by 
shutting  out  the  sea  from  the  flat  lands  by  dykes.  This 
is  frequently  done  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  From  this 
region  are  exported  to  the  United  States  considerable 
quantities  of  apples  and  potatoes. 

These  provinces  are  included  in  the  great  pine  belt 
passing  over  the  country  between  Newfoundland  and 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  extending  north  from  the 
Great  Lakes  to  Hudson's  Bay.  The  principal  trees  are 
the  white  and  red  pine,  and  the  timber  exported  from 
New  Biiinswick  and  Nova  Scotia  has  proved  a  source 
of  great  wealth. 

Nova  Scotia  contains  important  coal  deposits,  the 
production  in  1887  being  1,871,338  tons,  or  over  one- 
half  of  the  entire  production  of  Canada  for  that  year. 
The  principal  mines  are  in  Cape  Breton,  an  island  of 

food  soil  and  excellent  grazing  lands,  with  numerous 
arbors,  and  prosperous  in  fisheries  and  ship-building. 
Its  advantageous  situation  near  the  great  fishing  banks, 
make  it  of  vast  importance  as  a  coaling  station.  Syd- 
ney harbor  is  the  principal  coal  field.  The  others  ex- 
tend across  the  northern  part  of  the  province,  and  are 


FISHERIES. 


61 


worked  in  the  Pictou  and  Cumberland  districts.*  These 
•carboniferous  fields  run  under  the  sea  and  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island  to  Newfoundland. 

The  fisheries  of  this  region  are  of  such  surpass- 
ing importance  that  it  is  said  that  without  them 
England  never  could  have  attained  her  naval  supre- 
macy. For  every  seaport  town,  every  little  village 
on  the  coast  has  become  a  nursery  of  seamen.  It  is, 
therefore,  more  likely  that  the  English  government 
will  endeavor  to  retain  this  "  arm  of  strength,"  so 
essential  to  her  honor,  independence  and  security. 
Talleyrand  wisely  observed  to  Bonaparte,  that  he 
could  only  distress  England  by  ruining  her  colonies. 
And  it  is  evident  that  English  statesmen  watch  care- 
fully the  temper  of  Canada  in  all  political  movements. 
They  are  always  anxious  for  speedy  and  amicable 
settlements  of  fishery  disputes  with  the  United  States 
«ince  the  subject  of  annexation  invaiiably  follows  that 
of  the  fisheries  if  the  colonists  are  not  content  with 
their  settlement.  If  they  cannot  obtain  from  England 
sufficient  protection  against  the  encroachments  of 
American  crafts  they  talk  of  throwing  off  that  alle- 
giance for  which  the  mother  countrj^  makes  no  return. 
The  fishery  question  is  again  a  subject  of  international 
<jonsideration,  since  the  best  fishing  grounds  are  those 
off  the  coasts  of  these  provinces  especially  near  the  fish- 
ing banks.  "  Western  Bank  "  is  off  the  Nova  Scotia 
coast.  The  "  Great  Bank,"  off  the  southern  coast  of 
Newfoundland,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  forma- 
tions of  nature.  In  length  it  is  about  six  hundred 
miles,  in  breadth  about  two  hundred.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  originally  an  island  and  that  it  has  been 
formed  by  accumulations  of  sand  carried  along  by  the 
<Tulf  Stream  and  arrested  by  the  currents  of  the  north. 

These  ice  currents  bring  with  them  a  vast  collection 
of  minute   organisms,  which   form   the   food   of  the 

1.  "The  Distinctive  Features  of  the  Various  Nova  Scotia  Coal  Fields"— 
Edwin  Gilpin,  Jr.,  A.M.,  Inspector  of  Mines,  Nova  Scotia. 


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H 


I 


62 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


myriads  of  fish  that  annually  frequent  these  waters. 
This  is  the  solution  of  the  swarniing  of  cod,  herring,, 
caplin  and  other  useful  fish  off  the  shoals,  and  the 
conse(juent  desire  of  Americans  to  fish  in  this  neigh- 
borhood causes  the  conflict  with  Canadian  fishermen, 
since,  with  few  exceptions,  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Bi'unswick,  they  do  not  employ  the  scientific  methods- 
of  the  New  Englanders. 

About  one  half  of  the  total  yield  of  the  fisheries  in 
the  Dominion  has  been  obtained  by  the  enterprising 
fishermen  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  values  of  the  fisheries 
in  Canada  by  provinces,  in  1888,  were:  Nova  Scotia,. 
$7,817,032;  New  Brunswick,  $2,941,863;  Quebec,. 
$1,860,012  ;  Prince  Edward  Island,  $876,862 ;  Ontario, 
$1,839,869.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  fisheries  of  British 
Columbia  were  valued  at  $1,902,195.  Manitoba  and  the 
Northwest  Territories  derived  from  their  inland  w^atera^ 
$180,677.  From  the  earliest  times  succeeding  the 
lievolution,  the  rights  of  American  and  Canadian  fish- 
ermen have  been  a  subject  of  controversy  and  treaty 
arrangement.  Probably  the  most  liberal  and  satisfac- 
tory was  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1854,  which,  since 
it  was  one  step  toward  commercial  union,  deserves 
special  attention.  Great  Britain  in  addition  to  the- 
privilege  of  taking  fish  on  certain  coasts  mentioned  in 
the  Convention  of  1818,  gave  the  inhabitants  of  the- 
United  States  the  liberty  "to  take  fish  of  eveiy  kind, 
except  shell-fish,  on  the  coasts,  shores  and  bays  of 
Canada,  New  Bi-unswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward 
Island,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  without  bemg  res- 
tricted to  any  distance  from  the  shore,  with  permission 
to  land  on  the  shores  of  those  colonies  and  the  islands 
thereof,  and  upon  Magdalen  Island  for  the  purpose  of 
drying  their  nets  and  curing  fish."  On  the  other  hand 
British  fishermen  were  allowed  "to  take  fish  of  every 
kind,  except  shell  fish,  on  the  Eastern  sea  coasts  and 
shores  of  the  United  States  north  of  the  thirty  sixth 
parallel  of  latitude  and  on  the  shores  of  the  several 


FISHERIES. 


>>  •> 


islands  without  being  limited  to  any  distance  from  the 
shore,"  with  the  same  privileges  of  drying  and  curing 
on  the  shores  as  were  extended  to  American  fishermen. 
The  St.  Lawrence  river  and  Canadian  canals  used  as 
comnumications  between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the 
Atlantic,  were  opened  to  the  navigation  of  Americans, 
while  Lake  Michigan  was  opened  in  like  manner  to 
British  subjects — a  right,  however,  being  reserved  of 
suspending  the  operation  of  these  concessions  upon 
due  notice  given.  Canadian  fish  and  fish  oil  were  im- 
ported into  the  United  States]  free  of  duty,  and  there 
was  free  trade  in  many  articles  of  exchange  between 
the  two  countries. 

This  system  of  free  trade  increased  the  markets  of 
the  United  States  and  opened  its  ports  to  the  export 
trade  of  British  North  America.  But  the  Canadians 
seemed  to  think  that  they  were  granting  too  great 
concessions  to  the  United  States,  and  the  United  States 
at  the  same  time  concluded  that  the  fisheries  were  not 
as  advantageous  as  protection.  The  treaty,  therefore, 
came  to  an  end  in  18G6.  Then  the  old  troubles  and 
questions  arose,  and  Canada  saw  how  greatly  her  com- 
merce and  prosperity  depended  upon  the  United 
States.  Canadian  fishermen  joined  the  fleets  of  New 
England,  so  as  to  enter  their  catch  in  American  mar- 
kets free  of  duty.  The  English  government  desired  a 
speedy  adjustment  of  the  fishery  question,  and  there 
followed  a  treaty  which  gave  the  same  provisions  as 
the  previous  one,  except  that  they  might  be  terminated 
by  either  government  upon  two  years  notice  after  ten 
years.  Fish  products  were  admitted  into  each  country 
respectively,  free  of  duty.  The  navigation  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  was  given  for  an  equivalent  in  Alaska ;  ar- 
rangements were  made  for  commercial  intercourse  with 
Canada ;  and  the  adjustment  was  made  of  the  North- 
western boundary. 

The  fishery  clauses  in  this  treaty  came  to  an  end  in 
July,  1885,  by  a  resolution  of  Congress  in  1883,  and 


k'! 


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64 


THE    DOMINION    OP   CANADA. 


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Canada  once  more  found  her  fisheries  cut  off  from  the 
advantages  of  free  trade.  The  consequence  was  that 
all  through  the  season  of  1 886  disputes  arose  in  regard 
to  the  interpretation  of  the  Convention  of  1818,  which 
again  came  in  force.  English  and  American  negotia- 
tors formed  a  treaty  on  February  15,  1888,  which  was 
transmitted  to  the  Senate  by  President  Cleveland,  with 
a  modus  vivendi  until  the  matter  be  settled.  The 
treaty  was  rejected,  and  the  modus  vivendi  which  re- 
mained  in  effect  expired  on  Febmary  15,  1890. 

By  this  arrangement  the  Ameri^^dU  fishing  vessels 
had  been  allowed  to  enter  Canadian  harbors  for  the  pur- 
chase of  supplies,  transhipment  of  catch,  and  shipping 
of  crevvs,  by  paying  annual  license  fees  of  $1.50  per  ton. 
From  tliese  fees  Canada  received  $9,985,80  dunng  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1889.^  The  sentiment  of 
the  fishmen  of  both  countries  is  in  favor  of  greater 
freedom  to  buy  and  sell  in  each  others  ports.  Indeed, 
Senator  Scott  of  the  Dominion  Parliment  in  commenting 
on  the  liberality  which  should  be  shown  to  the  United 
States,  said :  "  We  want  to  deal  with  you,  we  want  to 
trade  with  you,  without  the  intervention  of  British 
plenipotentiaries."  This  object  can  be  accomplished 
by  a  treaty  of  liberal  reciprocity,  commercial  union  or 
annexation. 

In  the  fourth  unity  lie  the  province  of  British 
Columbia  and  our  territory  of  Alaska. 

The  province  of  British  Columbia  is  a  natural  con- 
tinuation of  our  own  Northern  Pacific  States  in  geo- 
graphical character,  and  but  a  few  degrees  lower  in 
temperature,  it  promises  the  same  agricultural  possi- 
bilities. In  this  province,  as  well  as  in  the  northwest, 
the  ocean  currents  of  the  Pacific  Gulf  Stream  or  Kuro 
Siwa  have  a  great  influence  in  distributing  heat,  and 
make  the  climate  equal  to  that  fully  twenty  degrees 
farther  south. 

The  soil  is  productive  and  capable  of  growing  fruits 

1  See  Public  Accounts— Canada,  1889.,  p.  44. 


CLIMATE  AND  PRODUCTS. 


65 


in  abundance,  and  in  as  great  variety  as  in  England. 
Owing  to  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country 
the  land  is  used  for  grazing,  and  cattle  grow  fat  in 
verdant  pastures.  Earl  Dutt'erin  has  reported  that 
"  luider  wise  loc^  legislation  the  province  of  British 
Columbia  has  prospered  gi*eatly,  despite  the  neglect 
which  it  long  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  home 
government,  which  could  neither  appreciate  the  value 
nor  understand  the  needs  of  that  far  distant 
dependency."^ 

The  fisheries  are  valuable,  and  co  encourage  those 
engaged  in  them,  the  laws  of  British  Columbia  are 
very  liberal  in  allowing  the  use  of  vacant  public  lands. 

Gold  is  found  in  Texada  Island,  near  Bute  Inlet  in 
large  quantities.  The  total  value  of  this  precious  metal 
exported  from  the  province  since  confederation,  to 
June  1888,  was,  $15,834,821.  In  V  acouvers  Island 
there  are  rich  deposits  of  coal. 

The  sixth  territorial  unity  is  of  enormous  extent  and 
includes  the  province  of  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest 
Territories.  This  is  the  great  Canadian  forest  that 
offers  unlimited  natural  resources  to  the  future  popu- 
lation. Trees  grow  even  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  and  do  much  to  ameliorate  the  climate  and  act 
as  wind-breaks  against  the  cold  currents  from  the 
frozen  seas.  The  warm  Chinook  winds  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  distribute  themselves  over  our  north- 
western states  and  sensibly  temper  the  climate  of 
that  entire  region.  Furthermore,  the  numerous  lakes 
and  Hudson's  Bay  raise  the  temperature  of  the  air. 
And  the  fact  that  this  territorial  unity  is  not  in  as 
high  an  elevation  as  our  states  immediately  south  of  it, 
has  much  to  do  with  the  similarity  in  their  climates, 
since  the  height  of  a  place  has  a  much  greater  influ- 
ence on  the  temperature  than  its  latitude.  As  the 
forests  of  the  Dominion  are  converted  into  farm  lands, 
the  temperature  of  our  states  in  the  fifth  geographical 

1  Our  New  Alaska— Charles  Hallock. 


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66 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


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unity  must  approacli  nearer  the  temperature  of  tlie 
country  farther  north,  and  the  extremes  in  winter  and 
summer  become  greater. 

Since  this  unity  is  covered  with  primeval  forests, 


water>^by  small  streams  as  well  as  great  rivers,  its  re- 
sources are  yet  undeveloped,  but  it  promises  to  become 
the  finest  wheat  growing  country  in  the  world.  Since 
the  completion  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  and 
conse(|uent  easy  transportation  of  large  crops  to  the 
east,  the  eyes  of  a  population  on  both  sides  of  the  fron- 
tier have  been  turned  toward  this  vast  expanbe  of  ara- 
ble territory,  with  virgin  soil  as  fertile  as  our  most 
promising  lands  in  the  west,  extending  from  our  north- 
ern states  almost  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  from  the 
terj'itory  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay  to 
the  Rocky  MountfJns.  A  committee  of  the  Canadian 
Senate  charged  ^.vith  examining  the  rosources  and  capa- 
bilities of  this  region  north  of  the  Saskatchewan  water- 
shed, reported  : 

"  That  within  the  scope  of  the  committee's  inquiry 
there  is  a  possible  area  of  656,000  square  miles  suita^^le 
for  barley,  and  316,000  square  miles  suitable  for  wheat. 
That  there  is  a  pastoral  area  of  860,000  square  miles, 
26,000  miles  of  which  are  open  prairie,  with  occasional 
groves,  the  remainder  being  more  or  less  wooded; 
274,000  square  miles,  including  the  prairie,  may  be 
considered  as  arable  land.  That  throughout  this  arable 
and  pastoral  area,  latitude  bears  no  direct  relation  to 
summer  isotherms,  the  spring  flowers  and  the  buds  of 
deciduous  trees  appearing  as  early  north  of  Great 
Slave  Lake  as  at  Winnipeg,  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis, 
Kingston  and  Ottawa,  and  earlier  along  the  Peace, 
Liard,  and  some  minor  western  affluents  of  the  Great 
Mackenzie  River,  where  the  climate  resembles  that  of 
Western  Ontario." 

In  1887  the  province  of  Manitoba  produced  a  crop 
of  14,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  at  the  average  rate  of 
32.4  bushels  per  acre. 


CLIMATE  AND  PRODUCTS. 


67 


Stock  raising  has  naturally  engaged  attention  in  a 
country  with  pastures  and  crops  so  favorable  tO  tlie 
production  of  lood  essential  to  animal  life.  The 
ranches  in  the  Northwest  sent  4500  head  of  cattle  to 
Oreat  Britain  in  1888,  and  the  experiment  of  sending 
beef  direct  from  the  ranches  in  refrigerator  cars  has 
been  successfully  tr^'  id.  In  Alberta,  N.  W.  T.,  horse- 
breeding  is  a  special  industry.  This  district,  and  that 
of  Assiniboia  raised  in  1888  about  108,361  cattle,  23,- 
868  horses,  and  31,435  sheep  on  108  ranches. 

The  mineral  resources  of  this  unity  are  yet  undevel- 
oped, but  there  are  indications  of  valuable  and  exten- 
sive coal  beds  on  the  Saskatchewan,  Souris  and  Atha- 
basca rivers,  estimated  at  65,000  square  miles  in  area. 

Leaving  this  fertile  country,  and  passing  by  the 
settlements  of  hardy  factors  and  traders  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  we  arrive  at  a  laud  of  little  fertility, 
which,  by  a  singular  euphemism  has  been  called  Lab- 
rador, cultivable  land,  and  as  the  French  called  it, 
"Le  Bras  d'Or,"  although  this  precious  metal  is  not 
found  there.  The  climate,  like  that  of  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  is  subject  to  great  vicissitudes.  In  summer 
the  thermometer  reaches  85°  and  in  winter  it  is  often 
below  zero. 

Along  the  coast  massive  precipices  of  granite  beat 
back  the  surf  of  the  ocean. 

The  inhabitants  are  four-fifths  Esquimaux,  and  en- 
gage in  the  seal  and  other  fisheries  for  which  this 
region  is  noted. 

The  Island  of  Newfoundland,  lying  southeast  of 
Labrador,  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  but  has  not  joined 
the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Off  its  southern  shore  are 
the  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  which  have 
been  retained  by  France  to  protect  her  valuable  inter- 
ests in  the  fisheries.  They  are  sometimes  njikei  as 
third  in  importance  long  the  French  coloniep :  r.ever- 
theless,  the  fact  thufc  France  has  possessions  on  this 
continent  is  frequently  overlooked. 


m 


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THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


?l 


When  France  gave  up  Newfoundland  in  1713,  she 
retained  the  exclusive  privilege  of  fishing  on  the  south- 
ern shore,  which  Avas  confirmed  in  the  treaty  of  1763, 
when  the  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  were  re- 
stored to  her.  They  were  lost  to  France  by  the  first 
war  of  the  Revolution,  and  restored  again  by  the  peace 
of  Amiens,  but  the  next  war  returned  them  to  Great 
Britain,  Finally,  in  the  treaties  which  followed  the- 
fall  of  Napoleon,  Great  Britain  not  only  restored  these 
important  islands  but  confirmed  certain  privileges  of 
fishing  on  the  western  shore  of  Newfoundland  and 
adjacent  islands  and  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,, 
which  had  been  granted  in  the  peace  of  1783. 

The  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  are  not  only 
capable  of  being  made  impregnable,  but  their  situation 
commands  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
England,  therefore,  by  treaty  arrangement,  permits  the 
maintenance  of  a  garrison  of  but  50  soldiers.^ 

In  1885  the  population  was  5765,  allowing  for  1405 
persons  not  permanently  settled.  In  addition  to  these 
we  may  add  a  population  composed  of  those  who  are 
engaged  in  fisheries,  la  population  flottante^  which  i& 
estimated  at  8000  persons.'  The  established  church 
is  the  Roman  Catholic.  The  Protestants  have  one 
church  and  minister. 

On  accomnt  of  the  sterility  of  the  country,  agricul- 
ture only  yields  sufficient  products  to  meet  the  few 
wants  of  the  inhabitants.  The  great  fishing  indus- 
tries caused  the  exportation,  in  1884,  of  products 
amounting  to  14,639,226  francs. 

TV  J  colony  is  represented  at  Paris  by  a  superior 
Council  of  Colonies.  The  administration  of  affairs  in 
the  colony  is  in  charge  of  a  Commandant,  who  enforces 
the  decisions  and  instructions  of  the  General  Council  ^ 
composed  of  twelve  members,  and  the  Colonial  Com- 

1.  Rambaud's  "  La  France  Coloniale." — Statement  of  Lieutenant  Nicola* 
of  the  Infantry  of  Marine. 

2.  Ibid.,  p.  600,  608. 


■  \ 


CLIMATE  AND  PRODUCTS. 


6^ 


mission.  He  is  assisted  by  chiefs  of  the  Interior  and 
Judiciary,  and  a  Privy  Council. 

,  The  colonj^  is  divided  into  two  communes,  each  hav- 
ing a  Municipal  Council.  That  of  Sf  Pierre  is  com- 
posed of  a  Mayor,  3  Adjutants  and  16  Municipal 
Councellors.  That  of  Miquelon  of  a  Ma^^r  ^  2 
Adjutants  and  12  Municipal  Councellors. 


f  1 


I 


til ..' 


CHAPTER  IV. 
LEGAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL. 

LAWS. 

The  law  of  Canada,  under  the  French  regime  was  a 
mixture  of  the  Roman  law  and  the  feudal  customs  of 
the  Franks,  especially  known  as  the  Customary  Law 
of  Paris,  which  embodies  the  principles  of  the  feudal 
system.  According  to  this  system  lands  or  signeuries 
were  held  immediately  frornthe  King  as  fiefs,  on  con- 
dition of  the  seig7ieurs  rending  homage  on  accession  to 
their  estates.  On  the  deatti  of  the  seigneur  the  eldest 
son  took  the  chateau  and  half  the  land.  But  where 
there  were  only  two  sons  the  elder  took  the  chateau 
and  two-thirds  of  the  land.  He  received  a  greater 
portion  of  all  the  fisheries  and  timber  on  the  estate, 
and  fines  on  all  trr^nsfers  of  property. 

The  feudal  system  was  abolished  in  1854,  but  its 
effects  was  lasting  and  are  very  perceptible  in  the 
province  of  Quebec.  The  Canadians  were  so  much 
attached  to  this  species  of  patriarchal  tenure  that  they 
did  not  avail  themselves  of  the  socage  tenure  laws  in- 
troduced by  England  after  the  conquest.  England 
then  introduced  her  own  criminal  law,  but  for  civil 
cases  the  French  Canadian  law  was  used.  Habeas 
Corpus  was  introduced  in  1785  by  "  An  ordinance  for 
securing  the  liberty  of  the  subject  and  for  the  preven- 
tion of  imprisonment  out  of  the  Province." 

The  laws  relative  to  property  and  civil  rights  and 
the  procedure  of  the  courts  are  not  uniform  in  the 
several  provinces. 

The  sources   of  the  law  are :    1.  Imperial  Acts ;  2. 


LAWS. 


71 


Dominion  Acts;  3.  Provincial  Acts;  4.  Oiders  in 
Council ;  5.  Orders  of  the  Dominion  Parliament  and 
Provincial  Legislatures ;  H.  Old  Laws  and  Usages ;  7. 
Instructions  to  tlie  Governor-General.^ 

The  judges,  with  the  exception  of  police  magistrates 
and  justices  of  the  peace,  and  probate  judges  in  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunsv'ick,  are  appointed  by  the 
Governor  •  General.  But  the  British  North  America 
Act  provides  that,  in  appointing  judges  of  the  courts 
of  Quebec,  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick, 
selection  must  be  made  from  the  Bars  of  those  prov- 
inces. The  highest  court  in  the  Dominion  is  the 
Supreme  Court,  which  has  an  appellate  jurisdiction  in 
all  matters,  but  from  its  decisions,  in  civil  cases,  there 
is  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
British  Privy  Council.  This  is  a  bond  of  security 
which  the  Canadians  retain,  as  British  subjects,  because 
it  leaves  the  final  adjudication  of  legal  matters  in  the 
hands  of  the  mother  country  with  her  old  and  well- 
established  laws.  In  the  provinces  the  courts  are  on 
very  nearly  the  same  plan  as  in  England,  with  superior 
courts  vested  with  appellate  jurisdiction,  and  lower 
courts  in  each  province. 

In  criminal  cases,  by  the  act  51  Vic.  c.  43,  there  is 
no  appeal  to  the  Privy  Council.  The  tendency  is  to 
make  the  law  uniform  throughout  the  Dominion.  The 
various  codes,  however,  do  not  differ  greatly  from  those 
in  the  United  States,  and  since  this  is  the  great  test  in 
the  formation  of  extradition  treaties,  there  is  a  desire 
on  the  part  of  diplomatists  to  extend  the  list  of  crimes 
covered  by  the  Ashburton  Treaty  of  1842.  The  tenth 
article  of  that  treaty  embraces  only  the  crimes  of  mur- 
der, assault  with  intent  to  commit  murder,  piracy, 
arson,  robbery,  forgery,  and  the  utterance  of  forged 
paj^er.  By  a  convention  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  signed  at  Washington  July  12th, 
1889,  and  transmitted  to  the  Senate  by  President  Har- 

1.  Vide  J.  E.  C.  Munroe,  "The  Constitution  of  Canada." 


.! 


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72 


THE    DOMINION    OP    CANADA. 


i  ,) 


rison  on  December  17th,  1889,  it  was  agreed  in  Article 
1  as  follows : 

The  provisions  of  tlie  said  tenth  article  are  heieby 
made  applicable  to  the  following  additional  crimes  : 

1.  Manslaughter. 

2.  Counterfeiting  or  altering  money ;  uttering  or 
bringing  into  circulation  counterfeit  oi*  altered  money. 

3.  Embezzlement,  larceny,  obtaining  money,  goods 
or  valuable  securities  by  false  pretenses  ;  receiving  any 
money,  valuable  security  or  other  property,  knowing 
the  same  to  have  been  embezzled,  stolen  or  fraudulently 
obtained. 

4.  Fraud  by  a  bailee,  banker,  agent,  factor,  trustee, 
or  director  or  oJflScer  of  any  company,  made  criminal 
by  the  laws  of  both  countries. 

5.  Perjury,  or  subornation  of  perjury. 

6.  Rape,  abduction,  child-stealing,  kidnapping. 

7.  Burglary,  house-breaking  or  shop-breaking. 

8.  Piracy,  by  the  Laws  of  Nations. 

9.  Revolt,  or  conspiracy  to  revolt,  by  two  or  more 
persons  on  board  a  ship  on  the  high  seas,  against  the 
authority  of  the  master ;  wrongfully  sinking  or  destroy- 
ing a  vessel  at  sea,  or  attempting  to  do  so  ;  assaults  on 
board  a  ship  on  the  high  seas,  with  intent  to  do  griev- 
ous bodily  harm. 

10.  Crimes  and  offenses  against  the  laws  of  both 
countries  for  the  suppression  of  slavery  and  slave- 
trading. 

Extradition  is  also  to  take  place  for  participation  in 
any  of  the  crimes  mentioned  in  this  convention,  or  in 
the  aforesaid  tenth  article ;  provided  such  participa- 
tion be  punishable  by  the  laws  of  both  countries. 


FINANCIAL    AND    ADMINISTRATIVE   INSTITUTIONS. 


In  all  matters  of  commerce  the  tendency  has  been  to 
make  the  relations  between  the  two  countries  as  simple 


FINANCIAL  AND  ADMINISTRATIVE  INSTITUTIONS. 


as  possible.  The  curreucy  of  Canada,  by  the  Act  .'U 
Vic,  chap.  4,  was  placed  on  the  same  decimal  system  as 
that  of  the  United  States.  The  monetary  system  is 
based  on  the  Act  34  Vic.  chap.  5,  and  is  characterized 
by  the  same  methods  which  are  in  use  in  England  and 
the  United  States,  but  it  is  on  a  gold  basis  and  not  the 
bi-metallic  system.  The  banks  maintain  a  system  of 
exchanges  but  have  not  yet  adopted  our  cleari no-house 
system.  The  number  of  incorporated  banks  m  1888 
was  42,  nearly  all  having  their  centres  or  principal  offices 
in  the  Dominion.  Quebec  has  14  ;  Ontario,  13  ;  Nova 
Scotia,  9 ;  New  Brunswick  3,  and  Manitoba  and  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  one  each.  Their  liabilities  in  1888  were 
$166,344,852;  assets,  $244,975,223.  Even  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  banking  system  the  French  influence 
can  be  seen.  In  Quebec  there  are  many  banks  con- 
ducted under  French  names  and  methods,  and  their 
operations  are  more  confined  to  a  limited  space  and 
not  spread  over  the  Dominion  by  numerous  branches, 
as  are  the  thrifty  and  prosperous  banks  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick.  There  are,  in  addition  to  these, 
50  government  savings  banks,  under  the  management 
of  the  Finance  Department. 

The  establishment  of  Post  Office  Savincjs  Banks  in 
Canada  ^vas  intended  to  encourage  the  making  of  small 
deposits  by  the  poor  or  working  classes  in  institutions 
where  perfect  security  is  assured.  The  Post  Office 
Act  of  1867  provides  for  their  formation  and  declares 
that  a  deposit  must  not  be  less  than  $1.00  or  greater 
than  $1000.  In  Ontario  the  system  is  on  a  good 
working  basis,  and  the  offices  number  317.  In  Quebec 
the  deposits  have  been  smaller  than  was  expected,  a 
fact  attributable  to  the  old  dislike  of  the  French  Cana- 
dian population  to  adopt  new  methods.  The  number 
of  offices  in  this  province  is  75  ;  in  Nova  Scotia,  22  ; 
in  New  Brunswick,  14  ;  in  Manitolxi,  2,  and  in  British 
Columbia,  3.  The  rate  of  interest  in  all  government 
banks  is  four  per  cent. 


V 

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74 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


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Before  confederation  the  several  provinces  had  their 
own  i)ostal  systems,  but  by  the  Act  31  Vic,  chap.  10, 
a  nnit'orm  system  was  established  for  the  Dominion. 

International  correspondence  between  Canada  and 
the  United  States,  in  addition  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Universal  Postal  Union,  is  regulated  by  agreements  of 
1875  and  1888.  Each  country  retains  the  money  col- 
lected without  making  returns  on  account  of  postage 
to  either  country.  The  system  of  Canada  as  well  a» 
the  United  States  has  had  a  steady  growth  both  in 
the  number  of  post  offices  and  in  the  business  trans- 
acted. The  following  statistics  show  the  increase 
since  confederation : 

1868.  1888. 


Number  of  post  offices,     . 
Letters  posted,     . 
Postal  Cards, 
Number  of  letters  per  head, 


3,638 
18,100,000 


5.37 


7,671 
80,200,000 
16,586,000 

16.13 


In  reference  to  the  debt  of  Canada,  her  financial  con- 
dition may  be  divided  into  three  periods : 

1.  From  1867,  when  the  confederation  was  begun 
and  the  debt  was  $75,728,641,  to  1874,  when  the  union 
of  provinces  was  completed  and  the  debt  was  $108,- 
324,965.  This  increase  in  the  Federal  debt  was  caused 
by  the  Dominion  government  assuming  the  debts  of 
the  provinces,  amounting  to  $109,430,148;  but  the 
period  is  marked  by  increasing  revenue  and  sur- 
pluses.^ 

2.  From  1874  to  1878,  during  which  period  decreas- 
ing revenue  was  noticed,  because  of  the  depression  in 
trade  both  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  the 
inequality  in  tariffs. 

3.  From  1878  to  1889,  a  period  marked  by  reduc- 
tion in  the  tariff  and  consequent  accumulation  of  sur- 
pluses and  increasing  revenue.  During  this  time  the 
government  incurred  the  vast  expenditure  of  $24,000,- 

1.  Budget  Speech — Minister  of  Finance,  March  5,  1889. 


FINANCIAL  AND  ADMINISTRATIVE  INSTITUTIONS.      75 


000  for  the  construction  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way,' and  the  debt  increased  to  $234,531,358. 

The  debt  of  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
American  Almanac  for  1889,  is  J^l, 705,992,320.58,  or 
$20.42  per  head  of  the  population.  That  of  Canada  i8 
$47.16  per  head  of  its  population.  But  these  figures 
cannot  be  used  in  coinparis(»n  to  show  greater  national 
prosperity  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  because 
the  Dommion  of  Canada  has  adopted  a  policy  of  cen- 
tralizing all  the  large  puVjlic  expenses,  thus  relieving 
the  provinces  of  the  burden  of  supporting  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice,  militia,  penetentiaries,  immigration 
and  quarantine,  and  the  salaries  of  Governors.  The 
Dominion  also  pays  the  interest  on  the  assumed  debts 
of  the  provinces  and  gives  them  subsidies  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  oflicial  service.  This  financial  system  is 
directly  the  reverse  of  that  prevailing  in  this  country, 
where  each  state  is  self- supporting  and  conducts  its 
finances  without  friction  with  the  federal  relations  and 
on  an  independent  basis.  The  financial  independence 
of  the  provinces,  now  that  the  confederation  is  on  a 
firm  foundation,  would  tend  to  promote  among  the 
people  a  feeling  of  self-reliance  and  capacity,  l3y  es- 
tablishing a  revenue  by  such  means  as  each  province 
sees  fit. 

The  method  of  taxation  is  different  from  that  gener- 
ally employed  in  the  United  States.  The  provinces, 
if  we  except  the  minor  taxes,  such  as  those  on  legal 
documents  in  Quebec,  and  mines  in  Nova  Scotia,  have 
no  revenue  systems.  The  power  of  taxation  for  both 
services  is  in  the  federal  government,  and  the  revenue 
is  obtained  by  a  tarift'  on  imports  and  exports  and  ex- 
cise and  the  earnings  of  post-offices  and  public  works. 

In  the  United  States  the  people  pay  taxes  not  only 
to  their  own  states,  on  personal  and  real  property,  but 
also  indirectly  to  the  federal  government.  Thus,  tax- 
ation in  Canada  is  for  the  most  part  indirect,  and  can- 

1.  Hansard,  314,  p.  313. 


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76 


THE    DOMINION    OP   CANADA. 


not  be  compared  witli  that  in  tliis  country.  Taxation 
in  Canada  for  the  year  1888,  was  $5.66  per  head,  while 
in  the  United  States  it  was  $5.51  per  head  in  the  fed- 
eral government,  and  $1.08  per  head  in  the  states.* 
Thus,  the  people  of  this  country  pay  93  cents  per  head 
greater  taxation  than  the  subjects  in  Canada. 

The  annexation  of  Canada  might  lead  to  the  adop- 
tion of  direct  taxation,  toward  which  the  United  States 
has  been  tending.  Since  indirect  taxation  is  an  inci- 
dent of  centralization  and  is  not  encouraged  by  some 
political  economists  because  it  raises  the  price  of  mer- 
chandise, and  poor  people,  receiving  less  wages,  do  not 
know  how  much  they  are  paying  for  their  purchases. 

COMMUNICATION    AND    COMMERCE. 

The  facilities  of  communication  on  the  continent  and 
between  the  two  countries  have  so  greatly  increased 
that  it  is  now  possible  to  travel  with  ease  and  comfort 
to  the  most  widely  separated  parts. 

There  has  been  a  gradual  growth  in  railroad  con- 
struction, since  the  building  of  the  first  railway  in 
Canada  in  1836  in  Quebec,  which  was  sixteen  miles  in 
length,  to  the  confederation  in  1867,  when  there  were 
2258  miles  in  operation.  Then  the  Dominion  govern- 
ment agreed  to  take  upon  itself  the  construction  of 
several  lines  connecting  the  provinces,  and  railroad 
construction  made  rapid  progress,  until,  with  the  com- 

Eletion  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  in  1888,  from 
lake  Nipissing  to  Port  Moody  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
the  length  of  railways  in  Canada  amoimted  to  12,701 
miles.  In  the  United  States  in  1888  there  were 
152,726  miles  completed.^ 

In  competition  with  the  railroads  in  the  two  conn- 
iries  there  are  water  routes  by  canals  and  great  natural 
highways.     The  most  important  in  the  world  is  that 

1.  Budget  Speech— Minister  of  Finance,  Canada,  1889. 

2.  American  Almanac,  1889. 


COM^IUNICATION  AND  COMMERCE. 


"7 


known  as  tlie  St.  Lawrence  route,  from  Diilutli  to  the 
Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  which,  formed  by  the  Great  Lakes 
and  St,  Lawrence  river,  is  2384  miles  long  and  com- 
mon to  both  countries  as  far  as  Buffalo.  Beginning 
here,  the  Erie  canal  extends  352  miles,  until  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  Hudson  river  at  Troy,  thus  affording 
an  American  water  route  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  for 
western  grains  and  manufactures,  in  competition  with 
the  parallel  lines  of  railroads  across  New  York  and 
Pennsyh'^ania.  The  route  to  Montreal  from  Lake  Erie 
is  through  the  Welland  canal,  Lake  Ontario  and  the 
(ralops,  Rapide  Plat,  Ferran's  Point,  Cornwall,  Beau- 
harnois  and  Lachine  canals,  comprising  the  St.  Law- 
rence system. 

The  St.  Marie  river  not  being  navigable,  connection 
between  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior  is  by  a  canal  on, 
the  American  side,  one  mile  in  length  and  eighty 
feet  wide.  But  owing  to  the  greatness  of  travel  on 
this  canal  the  Canadian  government  is  constructing 
another  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide,  which  is  expected  to  be 
ready  for  use  in  May  1892.  This  is  the  great  water 
route  for  carrying  the  products  of  the  west  and  north- 
west to  the  ocean  vessels  at  Montreal,  and  is  in  di- 
rect competition  with  the  Canadian  Pacific,  Grand 
Trunk  and  St.  Lawrence  system  of  railways.  The 
successful  passage  of  an  ocean  steamer  from  Liver- 
pool to  Chicago,  in  1888,  has  raised  the  possibilities 
for  the  maintenance  of  a  direct  route  between  the 
Great  Lakes  and  Europe.  This  would  make  it 
possible  to  convey  freight  for  one-third  the  rate 
charged  on  railways,  and  consequently  nearly  all  the 
grain  of  the  west  would  pass  off  in  this  direction.  Li 
order  to  make  the  scheme  j)i'acticable,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  enlarge  the  Canadian  canals,  at  a  probable 
estimate  of  $70,000,000,  which  would  be  one-third 
more  than  the  cost  of  the  Nicaragua  canal.^ 

1.  See  Letter  of  Henry  K.  Wicksteed,  N.  Y.  limes,  Jan.  31,  1890. 


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78 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


There  Ims  been  a  steady  decrease  in  traffic  on  cannl» 
in  conti/ist  with  the  increase  on  railroads.  This 
seems  to  indicate  that  canals  are  preferred  for  short 
distances,  but  where  ciuickness  is  desired  gi'eat  ship- 
ments are  sent  by  rail.  The  number  of  Canadian 
vessels  employed  on  the  canals  and  Great  Lakes  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  United  States.  The  cause  of  this  is 
attributed  to  the  restrictions  and  prohibitions  of  the 
United  States  navigation  laws,  which  by  a  false  theory 
of  protection  are  depressing  shipping  interests.  Vessels 
not  exclusively  owned  in  the  United  States  cannot 
carry  freight  between  two  American  ports.  Canadian 
vessels  can  ply  between  Chicago  and  Montreal,  but  not 
between  Chicago  and  Buffalo.  Therefore,  the  sur})lus 
crops  of  the  west  are  carried  oif  on  Canadian  vessels 
by  the  St.  Lawrence  route.  The  tonnage  of  Canadian 
vessels  in  1888  amounted  to  1,089^642,  which  is  a 
much  greater  showing,  in  proportion  to  the  respective 
populations  and  trade  relations,  than  the  4,191,916 
tonnage  of  vessels  in  the  United  States. 

The  fertile  lands  of  our  western  states  have  been 
developed  by  the  introduction  of  agricultural  machin- 
ery and  railroads.  According  to  the  last  census  the 
area  suitable  for  farming  is  1,500,000  square  miles,  or 
960,000,000  acres.  If  we  deduct  from  this  the  land 
already  taken  for  farming,  amounting  to  536,081,835 
acres,  we  have  left  but  a  small  amount  of  unoccupied 
land  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  population.  The 
number  of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  in  the  United 
States  i8  13.92 ;  in  Canada,  1.35.  Thus  the  surplus 
j)opulation  of  the  United  States  must,  in  a  few  years, 
turn  toward  the  Canadian  northwest. 

The  northwest  has  been  brought  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  the  Maritime  Provinces  by  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railroad,  which  has  been  likened  to  the  long 
sought  "  Northwest  Passage."  Before  its  completion 
it  was  'iccessary  for  these  provinces  to  do  all  their 
trading  with  Asia  through  the  United  States,  but  now 


:*  '  i' 


COMMUNICATION  AND  COMMERCE. 


7{> 


the  trade  from  the  importation  of  such  articles  as  tea 
and  silk,  and  the  exportation  of  machinery,  cotton  and 
general  merchandise,  was,  in  1888,  1JJ,048  tons.  The 
farmers  of  our  northwestern  states  find  it  cheaper,  in 
some  instances,  to  send  their  crops  by  this  route  to  the 
vessels  at  Montreal. 

England  is  proud  of  her  great  territorial  expansion, 
and  now  that  the  Canadian  Pacific  Kailway  has 
brought  British  Columbia  within  foiu'teen  days  of  the 
British  coast,  she  sees  a  method  of  further  advancing 
and  protecting  her  commercial  interests.  It  is  another 
route  to  India — and  entirely  through  British  territory. 
If  for  any  reason  the  route,  which  she  now  generally 
takes  through  the  Suez  canal  should  be  closed,  as 
would  be  likely  in  case  of  war  arising  out  of  the 
"eastern  ({uestion,"  or  if  the  route  around  the  Cape 
were  cut  off  by  enemies'  ships,  she  has  a  third  route 
through  Canada  which  can  be  taken  in  thirty-two  days, 
or  a  few  days  less  than  by  the  other  two.  England 
has  been  quick  to  see  this  new  advantage  and  has 
willingly  cooperated  with  the  Dominion  government 
in  the  construction  of  a  great  line  of  mail  steamers 
which  will  run  from  the  city  of  Vancouver,  on  the 
Pacific,  to  Hong  Kong,  China  and  Japan.^  The  vessels 
will  be  of  modern  construction  and  capable  of  good 
service  as  cruisers  during  war  panics. 

The  waters  between  Canada  and  England  will  soon 
be  traveled  by  a  new  line  of  steamers  which  will  ac- 
complish the  voyage  in  six  days. 

The  total  imports  of  Canada  during  the  year  1889 
amounted  to  $109,673,000,  of  which  $50,537,000  were 
on  goods  from  the  United  States,  and  $43,317,000 
from  those  of  Great  Britain.  Thus  its  trade  relations 
with  us  are  greater  than  with  the  mother  country,  and 
nearly  one-half  of  its  world  imports.  Canadian  ex- 
ports to  the  United  States  were  $34,522,000.' 


V 


if!    t! 


I' 


M 


1.  Hansard,  "  Parliamentary  Debates,"  338,  p.  820. 

2.  Trade  and  Navigation  Report,  Ottawa,  1890. 


80 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


p.r.\    I 


ll 


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'Ji    i 


Our  trade  relations  with  Canada  can  also  be  empha- 
sized from  the  fact  that  exports  to  the  Republics  of 
South  America  during  the  same  year  amounted  to 
$30,744,497,  and  to  Central  America  $11,249,936.  The 
sum  of  these  figures  is  less  than  that  indicating  our 
Canadian  sales. 

This  is  used  as  an  argument  in  favor  of  commercial 
union.  For,  if  we  desire,  as  was  indicated  by  the  Pan- 
American  Congress,  to  enter  into  reciprocal  relations 
with  the  nations  to  the  south  of  us,  how  much  more 
should  Ave  desire  to  extend  our  trade  with  Canada, 
where  the  balance  is  in  our  favor. 

Unless  our  Federal  government  changes  its  policy 
of  protection,  we  shall  see  the  trade  of  Canada  becom- 
ing formidable  to  Ub,  and  more  independent  as  it  rap- 
idly builds  up  communication  with  South  America, 
the  West  Indies,  and  by  means  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  the  nations  of  Japan  and  China.  The  estab- 
lishment of  commercial  union  with  Canada  would  be 
but  a  step  forward  toward  the  sound  policy  of  free 
irade,  and  could  be  tried,  as  an  experiment,  as  to  the 
advisability  of  its  further  extension.  For  the  nego- 
tiation of  a  treaty  of  this  kind  with  Canada  would 
probably  result  in  establishing  free  trade,  since  other 
nations  would  demand  that  they  receive  the  same  priv- 
ileges. Trade  is  steadily  increasing  between  the  two 
■countries,  regardless  of  tariff.  Commerce  is  causing 
Americans  to  think  that,  if  commercial  union  is  se- 
cured, the  five  million  Canadians  will  soon  desire 
further  to  enjoy  the  politics  and  commerce  of  our  pop- 
ulation of  sixty-five  millions,  by  annexation.  Commer- 
■cial  union  would  be  a  practical  equivalent  of  annexa- 
tion, for  the  great  ^Tovth  American  continent  would  be 
under  the  same  con.aiercial  law,  and  by  its  great  sys- 
tem of  railroads  and  other  communications,  its  internal 
resources  and  influence  would  stand  out  as  exclusive 
against  the  rest  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  v.— POLITICAL. 


CONSTITUTION. 


The  Canadian  colonies  have  always  been  deprived 
of  representation  in  the  Imperial  government,  and^ 
until  the  recent  Dominion  Constitution,  prescribed  by- 
act  of  the  British  Parliament  in  1867,  they  had  few 
privileges  of  self-government. 

The  colonial  government  given  to  Canada  after  the 
fall  of  the  French  power  was  not  even  as  liberal  as 
that  under  which  the  New  England  colonies  had 
struggled.  The  home  government  understood  the 
peculiar  nature  of  its  subjects  and  established  a 
strong  and  almost  tyrannical  colonial  administration,, 
while  the  Canadians  ^vere  content  to  be  niled  by  a 
Governor  and  Council,  since  they  knew  no  government 
bettt/  than  that  of  Louis  XV.,  and  did  not  desire 
self  government  and  legislation  according  to  the  con- 
stitutional system  of  a  governor  and  two  branches 
or  houses. 

The  several  Colonial  Secretaries  who  were  aj^pointed 
do  not  seem  to  have  worked  for  the  best  interests 
of  the  colonies,  since  their  terms  of  office  were  depend- 
ent upon  the  r^uccess  of  their  party.  Each  secretaiy 
understood  the  peculiar  policy  pursued  by  his  party 
toward  Canadian  affairs  and  made  it  his  custom  not 
to  acquire  a  suitable  knowledge  of  the  needs  of  his 
people,  but  to  study  how  he  might  retain  his  place 
and  salary.  Thus,  while  the  leading  features  of 
the  Canadian  policy  \A'^ere  changing  oft^on  vdth  party 
movements,  the  details  of  carrying  out  that  policy 
were  in  the  L  ,'ias  of  irresponsible  agents  who  sat  in 
their  high  seals  in  England. 


1 


S2 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


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The  government  established  by  the  Constitutional 
Act  of  1791^  did  not  avert  the  abuses  and  mis- 
government  which  resulted  from  differences  in  party 
politics.  The  province  was  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  with  a  separate  legislature  in  each, 
composed  of  a  Council  and  Assembly.  The  executive 
power  was  vested  in  a  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Upper 
Canada  and  a  Governor  of  Lower  Canada,  who  had 
al«o  a  certain  control  over  the  Upper  province. 
There  was  an  Executive  Council,  composed  of  officers 
of  the  Crown,  presiding  over  both  provinces.  These 
provinces  were  then,  as  now,  essentially  diffei-ent  in 
ethnical  character  and  political  knowledge. 

The  colonies  were  satisfied  for  years  afterward  ^vith 
the  rule  of  England  ;  but  when  tlie  increased  popula- 
tion became  fused  with  English  and  American  settlers, 
it  began  to  feel  its  strength,  and  appreciating  the 
rights  conferred  by  the  Constitution  of  1791  to  desire 
their  substantial  exercise  and  further  extension.  Dis- 
satisfaction naturally  commenced  in  Lower  Canada,  the 
most  powerful  and  progressive  of  the  six  colonies,  and 
spread  to  the  others.  The  question  of  becoming 
independent  often  agitated  the  minds  of  the  Cana- 
dians, and  after  the  triumphs  of  the  revolutionary 
principle  in  Europe  during  the  ten  years  preceding 
1840,  the  excitement  of  the  people  was  strongly  in 
favor  of  a  government  similar  to  that  "  composing  the 
industrious,  moral  and  prosperous  confederations  of 
the  United  States." 

The  Assembly  of  Lower  Canada,  in  1 834,  passed  a 
set  of  resolutions,  asking  for  a  Legislative  Council 
<!hosen  by  the  people,  instead  of  by  the  Crown,  and  the 
power  of  revising  the  constitution.  They  declared 
that  by  this  measure  the  British  Parliament  "  would 
preserve  a  friendly  intercourse  between  Great  Britain 
and  this  province,  as  her  colony^  as  long  as  the  tie 
■between  us  shall  continue,  and   as    her  ally  whenever 

1.  Geo.  III.,  ch.  31. 


..^    i 


m^ 


CONSTITUTION. 


83 


ihe  course  of  evc7its  may  change  &ur  relative  positio7iP 
Tlie  sentiment  of  the  people  as  represented  in  the 
lower  house  became  so  strong  for  refonn  of  existing 
government  or  entire  independence,  that  tliey 

"  Resolved,  that  the  neighbouring  states  have  a 
form  of  government  very  lit  to  prevent  abuses  of 
power,  and  very  effective  in  repressing  them ;  that  the 
reverse  of  this  order  of  things  has  always  prevailed  in 
Canada  under  the  present  form  of  government;  that 
there  exists  in  the  neighbouring  states  a  stronger  and 
more  general  attachment  to  the  national  institutions 
than  in  any  other  country,  and  that  there  exists  also 
in  those  states  a  guarantee  for  the  progressive  advance 
of  their  political  institutions  toward  perfection,  in  the 
revision  of  the  same  at  short  and  determinate  inter- 
vals, by  conventions  of  the  people,  in  order  that  they 
may  Avithout  shock  or  violence  be  adapted  to  the 
actual  state  of  things.''^  Not  content  with  these  bold, 
and,  as  the  British  thought,  treasonable  ex])ressions, 
thev  added  that  "  the  institutions  of  Great  Britain  are 
altogether  different  from  our  own,"  and  "  that  the  unan- 
imous consent  \,'ith  which  all  American  States  have 
adopted  and  extended  the  elective  system,  shows  that 
it  is  adapted  to  the  wishes,  manners,  and  social  state  of 
the  inhabitants  of  this  continent.'''' 

These  numerous  petitions,  complaints  and  demands 
for  redress  of  grievances  were  caused  by  the  desire  of 
the  French  Canadians  to  keep  alive  their  nationality, 
the  influence  of  American  agitators,  and  the  conflict  of 
the  two  races  arising  out  of  those  land  grants  which 
we  have  already  investigated,-  as  well  as  those  made 
to  the  British-American  Land  Company,  which  in- 
■creased  the  influence  of  the  mother  country.^  It  is  not 
necessaiy  to  trace  the  history  of  this  agitation  onward 
tlirough  its  various  stages.     The  people  demanded  :* 

1.  Resolutions,  21st  February,  1834. 

3.  Vide  ante,  pages  14,  15,  16,  38  and  39. 

3.  Address  of  October,  1836. 

4.  February  25,  1836. 


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84 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


31  „ 


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s  ,     .-- 


1.  An  Elective  Coimcil. 

2.  The  repeal  of  the  Tenures  Act,  and  the  act 
creating  the  British- American  Land  Company. 

3.  Complete  Parliamentary  control  over  the  whole 
of  the  lands  belonging  to  the  colony. 

4.  Complete  control  over  revenue  and  expenditures. 
The   clamor  for   an  elective  legislative  body   ^vas 

made  by  the  French  element,  which  was  opposed  to 
the  English,  and  desired  authority  o\er  the  immediate 
j'epresentatives  of  the  Crown.  The  Assembly  withheld 
the  supplies,  and  there  followed  acts  of  disorder,  caus- 
ing the  rebellion  of  1837-8  for  national  independence, 
which  was  soon  put  down  by  those  who  were  loyal  to 
England  and  desired  her  supremacy. 

The  leader  of  the  revolt  was  Louis  Joseph  Papineau, 
an  ambitious  French  Canadian  of  mild  manners,  but 
possessing  a  discontented  mind  filled  with  theories  for 
the  advancement  of  the  people  of  his  nationality.  He 
thought  that  by  causing  the  Canadians  to  revolt  he 
might  gain  the  independence  of  Canada,  with  himself 
as  Dictator,  after  the  manner  of  the  revolutionary 
leaders  of  France.^ 

The  constitution  of  Lower  Canada  was  suspended,'^ 
and  Lord  Durham,  Avho  was  appointed  to  administer 
the  provisionary  government,  made  a  report  on  the 
conditions  and  needs  of  the  province  in  which  he  re- 
commended the  restrictions  of  the  French  language  and 
the  union  of  the  British  North  American  possesions, 
because  "  it  would  enable  the  province  to  cooperate 
for  all  common  purposes,  and  above  all,  it  would  form 
a  great  and  powerful  people,  possessing  the  means  of 
securing  good  and  responsible  government  for  itself, 
and  which,  under  the  protection  of  the  British  Empire, 
might  in  some  measure,  counterbalance  the  preponder- 
ous  and  increasing  influence  of  the  United  States  on 


1.  Vide  United  Service  Journal,  1838. 

2.  31  Geo.  III.,  c.  31. 


t 


CONSTITUTION. 


85 


the  American  continent."^  The  result  was  a  bill 
brought  forward  by  Lord  John  l»ussel,  during  the  ses- 
sion of  1839,  providing  for  a  new  constitution. 

The  debates  that  followed  were  interesting  and  im- 
portant, and  local  and  resi)onsible  government  received 
full  consideration.  Lord  John  llussel  did  not  want 
separation,  but  said  that  the  interference  of  the  Impe- 
rial Parliament  in  affairs  of  colonial  government  ought 
to  be  confined  to  extreme  cases.  Therefore,  by  the 
constitution  of  1840,'-  the  two  provinces  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada,  which  had  been  separate  since  1791, 
were  united,  and  a  government  established  whereby 
Eno-land  removed  the  manao:ement  of  local  aifairs  from 
the  combinations  and  agitations  in  home  politics,  and 
permitted  Canada  to  a].)proach  nearer  the  ideal  self- 
government  system  of  Teutonic  states.  Kepresentation 
w^as  divided  equally  between  the  t^vo  provinces,  al- 
though Lower  Canada  ^vas  more  populous. 

Lord  Syndenham,  who  came  out  as  Governor,  suc- 
ceeded, during  his  short  term  of  office,  in  counteract- 
ing the  French-Canadian  influence  by  procuring  an 
Anglo-Canadian  majority  in  both  Houses  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  the  united  province.  This  caused  a  feeling  of 
security  for  a  time  in  the  country,  since  legislation  was 
toward  securing  titles  to  real  property  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  feudal  system.  One  of  the  most  successful 
arguments  to  excite  rebellion  had  been  that  the  inhab- 
itants would  free  themselves  from  seignioral  dues.^ 

The  political  movements  of  the  times  succeeding, 
were  the  endeavors  of  the  "  Liberals  "  and  "  Conserva- 
tives "  to  get  the  upper  hand,  and  of  the  Governors  to 
please  both  elements  of  the  population. 

The  Liberals  had  in  their  party  the  French-Canadian 
faction,  headed  by  Mr.  Papineau,  who  had  been  con- 
spicuous in  the  late  vebellion.     They  frequently  agi- 


1.  Constitutional  History,  p.  53. 

2.  Act  of  3  and  4  Victoria,  c.  35. 

3.  Hansard,  LVII.,  p.  19. 


J.  G,  Bourinot. 


■V 


>  t 


86 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


tated  the  subject  of  annexation  or  independence,  and 
were  encouraged  by  American  speculators  and  those 
who  liad  strong  democratic  ideas.  It  was  through 
their  manct'uvering  that  the  Rebellion  Losses  Indemnity 
Bill  was  passed  through  both  Houses  and  received, 
from  Lord  Elgin,  his  sanction  and  recommendation  to 
the  home  government.  Annexation  associations  Avere 
formed  in  a  few  places,  but  the  movement  was  confined 
to  no  particular  party.  It  was  noticeable  that  persons 
of  the  most  opposite  political  views  on  domestic  ques- 
tions forgot  their  differences  and  united  in  their  advocacy 
of  this  great  scheme.'  The  annexation  manifestoes  were 
approved  by  many  who  thought  that  England's  policy 
at  that  time  was  in  favor  of  getting  rid  of  her  colonies. 
The  position  taken  by  many  of  the  leading  London 
papers,  for  example,  the  Times,  was  such  as  to  convey 
this  impression.  It  is  likely  that  some  decisive  action 
would  have  been  taken  but  for  the  internal  disturb- 
ances in  the  United  States  which  preceded  the  Civil  War. 

Opposed  to  the  Annexationists  was  a  strong  party 
consisting  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  with  their 
French-Canadian  followers,  and  the  Conservatives.  The 
latter,  after  the  passage  of  the  Rebellion  Losses  In- 
demnity Bill,  had  banded  themselves  into  a  "  British 
American  League,"  which  was  loyal  to  England  and 
instrumental  in  restoring  peace  and  order.  The  Con- 
servative party  began  to  lose  power,  and  there  was  a 
movement  in  all  parties  toward  reform. 

That  part  of  Canada  known  as  the  maritime  prov- 
inces does  not  need  as  much  attention  in  a  constitu- 
tional history,  inasmuch  as  it  has  not  been  subject  to  the 
French  influence.  It  was  originally  Acadie,  but  in 
the  year  1749  England  colonized  it  and  gave  it  the 
name  Nova  Scotia,  including  the  provinces  of  New 
Brunswick  and  Prince  Edward  Island.  The  latter 
was  constituted  a  distinct  province  in  1770,  and  the 
former  in  1784. 


1.  See  "  Canada  since  the  Union  of  1841,"  p.  180.    J.  C.  Dent. 


CONSTITUTION^. 


87 


le 


These  provinces  were  colonized  by  English,  Seotcli 
and  U.  E.  Loyalists,  and,  therefore,  remained  in  sym- 
pathy with  British  institutions.  Their  government 
was  more  responsible  than  that  of  French  Canada  and 
freer  from  great  internal  dissensions. 

It  was  (piite  natural,  therefore,  that  Nova  Scotia 
should  take  the  first  step  toward  forming  a  confedera- 
tion of  the  provinces  on  the  plan  of  responsible  gov- 
ernment so  often  proi)osed  in  political  crises.  This 
province,  with  that  of  New  Brunswick,  urged  the 
union,  and  there  resulted  a  conference  of  delegates 
from  all  the  provinces  at  Qui^ec,  October  10th,  18G5, 
in  which  was  formed  the  foundation  of  the  present 
constitution  and  government. 

The  Fenian  movement  against  Canada  in  June,  1866, 
did  not  arise  from  a  desire  for  annexation,  but  was 
planned  by  the  leader,  O'Neil,  and  his  American  fol- 
lowers, through  sympathy  for  Irish  independence. 
Their  intention  was  to  injure  England  and  help  Ireland 
gain  its  freedom.  The  government  of  Canada  soon  re- 
stored peace ;  tlie  United  States  then,  as  in  the  subse- 
quent raid  of  1869  by  the  same  leader,  giving  assist- 
ance. 

The  British  North  American  Act  *  federally  united 
the  provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  made  provisions  for  the  admission  of  other 
parts  of  British  North  America.  The  province  of 
Canada  was  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec,  having  their  territories  co-extensive  with  the 
old  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada.  Provincial 
constitutions  were  given  to  these  provinces  according 
to  the  constitutions  existincr  before  the  Union  Act  of 
1840.  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  retained  the 
same  boundaries  and  provincial  constitutions. 

Before  entering  on  the  discussion  of  the  constitution 
it  would  be  well  to  speak  of  the  provinces  lately  ad- 
mitted into  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 


1  '.t  I 


1.  30anJ  31  Vic,  c.  3. 


88 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


U 


Manitoba  was  part  of  tlic  territory  granted  to  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company  by  Charles  II.  In  1811  the 
Earl  of  Selkirk,  who  owned  stock  in  the  company, 
purchased  a  large  tract  of  country  covering  what  is 
now  Manitoba,  and  estaldislied  a  colony  of  Scotch, 
which  was  unsuccessful.  The  company  bought  it  back 
in  1835  and  established  a  government  Avith  a  Governor 
and  Council. 

Legislation  over  Rupert's  Land  and  the  Northwest 
Territories  was  vested  in  the  Dominion,  in  18G8,  when 
a  ])rovisional  government  was  established,  but  owing 
to  the  consequent  conflicting  rights  of  the  company  and 
the  government,  a  rebellion  arose  among  the  French 
half-breeds  led  bv  Louis  Kiel,  which  resulted  in  the 
immediate  esta))lishment  and  entrance  into  the  Domin- 
ion, in  1870,  of  the  province  of  Manitoba.  Its  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  Lieutenant-Grovenior  and  Executive 
Council,  and  a  Legislative  Assembly. 

The  Saskatchewan  rebellion,  in  1882,  also  led  by 
Louis  lliel,  caused  the  formation  of  the  provisional 
districts  of  Assinboia,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta  and  Ath- 
abasca, of  the  Northwest  Territories,Avith  a  Lieutenant- 
Governor  and  Council.^ 

British  Columbia  was  also  a  part  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company's  territory,  but  at  the  time  of  the  "gold 
fever"  of  1858,  it  received  distinct  territorial  govern- 
ment. Vancouvers  Island  was  united  Avitli  it  in  1860. 
In  1871  it  entered  the  Dominion  with  a  constitution 
consisting  of  a  Lieutenant-Govei'nor,  an  Executive 
Council  and  a  Lef»;islative  Assembly. 

Prince  Edwai'd  Island  entered  in  1873,  and  has  a 
lesrislature  cousistinc:  of  a  Lieutenant  -  Governor,  a 
Legislative  Council  and  an  Assembly. 

The  Canadian  constitution  is  based  upon  the  Eng- 
lish, although  in  many  resj'jects  it  borrowed  from  the 
American. 


1.  For  an  account  of  these  rcbpllions,  see  an  article  by  Thomas  D.  Ram- 
baut,  in  the  "  Political  Science  Quarterly,"  March,  1887. 


CONSTITUTION. 


89 


The  Imperial  Parliament  docs  not  allow  local  juris- 
diction over  those  matters  whicli  regard  imperial  inter- 
ests and  honor,  but  maintains  a  large  amount  of  con- 
trol over  the  Dominion  government,  especially  by  re- 
serving to  England  the  rights  of  appointing  the  Gov- 
ernor-general, of  making  treaties  and  of  disallowing 
acts  not  affecting  trade  and  commerce.  The  Dominion 
can  alter  its  constitution  oidy  through  the  Imperial 
Parliament  and  not,  as  in  the  United  States,  through 
the  ratification  by  three-fourths  of  the  states,  of  amend- 
ments proposed  by  a  convention  called  by  Congress  or 
proposed  by  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  of  that  body. 

The  local  self-government  system  is  in  many  re- 
spects directly  the  reverse  of  that  in  the  United  States. 
The  provinces  possess  only  the  power  of  legislating  on 
those  matters  allowed  by  the  Dominion  constitution. 
The  government  at  Washmgton,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
limited  in  its  functions  under  the  constitution  by  the 
rights  of  the  several  states.  Here  we  find  the  distinc- 
tion between  "states"  and  "provinces."  Imperial 
control  in  all  matters  can  be  traced  to  the  fountain- 
head  in  the  will  of  the  sovereign  prerogative. 

For  the  purpose  of  examining  the  constitution  and 
comparini^  it  with  that  of  the  United  States  let  us 
glance  briefly  at  the  legislative  powers,  subject  to  the 
Imperial  Parliament  as  embodied  in  the  Governor- 
General,  Senate  and  House  of  Commons  in  the  central 
government,  and  the  legislatures  in  the  provinces. 

The  Go\  ernor-Geueral,  who  represents  the  dignity  of 
sovereignty  is  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  can  be  re- 
moved at  pleasure.  He  appoints  the  member  of  the 
Senate  from  the  provinces,  and  the  Lieutenant- GdlC- 
erMsrrs. 

The  members  of  the  Senate  hold  office  for  life,  and 
are  of  the  aristocratic  class.  They  therefore  vote  down 
all  measures  that  may  tend  to  diminish  the  power  of 
the  Crown  or  undermine  their  secure  and  lofty  posi- 
tions.    The  lack  of  real  interest  for  local  affairs  in  the 


'M 


90 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


f)rovinces  from  wliicli  they  are  fippointed  gives  them 
ittle  support  in  tlie  popiihir  feeling,  since  tlieir  motives 
are  not  always  for  the  best  interest  of  the  people. 
Canadian  Senators  do  not  fear  the  loss  of  votes  at  a 
re-election,  and  therefore  do  not  have  that  incentive 
which  spurs  on  the  American  Senator  to  advance  the 
power  of  his  state  according  to  the  idea  of  his  con- 
stituents. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Conunons  are  chosen 
by  the  people  and  represent  the  true  democratic  ideas 
of  government. 

Since  1885  the  franchise  in  Canada  has  been  uniform 
and  based  on  ownership,  occupation  or  income.  The 
right  to  vote  is  given  to  all  who  possess  the  following 
(pialifications : 

1.  The  ownership  or  occupation  for  at  least  one  year 
of  premises  of  the  value  of  $300,  in  cities ;  $200  in 
towns,  and  $150  in  other  places. 

2.  An  income  of  $300  a  year  or  an  annuity  of  $100, 
provided  there  has  existed  a  residence  of  one  year. 

3.  The  father's  ownership  or  occupation,  as  required 
gives  the  franchise  to  the  sons. 

4.  Possession  of  fishing  outfits  to  the  value  of  $300.^ 
This  law  regarding  electors  seems  to  be  an  improve- 
ment on  the  too  liberal  granting  of  the  franchise  prac- 
ticed in  many  of  our  states. 

The  government  of  Canada  is  in  three  branches,  de- 
cidedly unlike  the  three  powers  in  the  United  States, 
where  there  is  a  balance  of  power,  each  branch  being 
abjle  to  veto  the  acts  of  the  other  two,  and  each  receiv- 
ing its  authority  from  the  people. 

Each  state,  in  exercising  those  attributes  not  rele- 
gated to  the  central  government  under  the  federal  con- 
stitution, is  a  commonwealth  enjoying  domestic  sov- 
ereignty. By  an  admirable  method  adopted  by  the 
frame] 's  of  the  constitution  the  representation  at  Wash- 

1.  Vide  "The  Constitution  of  Canada"  p.  7.  Prof.  I.  E.  C.  Munroe,  1890. 


llv 


CONSTITUTION. 


91 


ington  of  states  unequal  iu  areas  and  populations  is 
provided. 

Tlie  Senate  is  composed  of  two  members  from  each 
state,  vvlio  compose  the  Federal  or  Upper  House,  while 
in  the  Lower  or  National  House  the  members  are  in 
proporticHi  to  the  population  of  each  state. 

In  Canada,  the  tipper  House  and  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral, thouti^h  the  latter  is  usually  careful  with  his  veto, 
work  for  the  interests  of  the  Crown,  and  the  voice  of 
the  pet)ple  can  only  be  heard  in  the  Lower  House  and 
the  Privy  Council  of  the  Governor-General,  according 
to  the  plan  of  responsible  government.  There  is  no 
e(piality  among  the  provinces ;  each  is  only  a  part  of 
the  whole  Dominion.  They  are  represented  in  the 
Senate  as  follows  :  Ontario,  24  members  ;  Quebec,  24  ; 
Nova  Scotia,  10;  New  Brunswick,  10;  Manitoba,  3; 
British  Columbia,  3 ;  Prince  Edward  Island,  4 ;  and 
the  Northwest  Territories,  2. 

The  House  of  Commons  consists  of  215  members, 
representing  the  provinces  as  follows  : 


i 


Ontario,  92  members,  representing  a  population  of  20,904  to  each. 
Quebec,  65  members,  representing  a  population  of  20,908  to  each. 
Nova  Scotia,  21  members  representing  a  population  of  20,979  to 

each. 
New  Brunswick,  16  members,  representing  a  population  of  20,077 

to  each. 
Manitoba,  5  members,  representing  a  population  of  21,728  to  each 
British  Columbia,  6  members,  representing  a  i)opulatiou  of  8,243 

to  each. 
Prince  Edward  Island,  6  members,  representing  a  population  of 

18,148  to  each. 
The  Territories,  4  members,  representing  a  population  of  12,090 

to  each. 


^i 


The  number  of  65  members  for  the  province  of  Que- 
bec was  fixed,  as  it  was  thought  that  the  population 
was  of  a  permanent  character,  upon  which  tlie  repre- 
sentation from  the  other  provinces  could  be  based.  For 
each  of  the  other  provinces  the  membei's  are  in  such 


'I' 


sa^.J-^  ^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


A 


^  J^^^. 


>v-   ^i'^^ 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


■£  Ui    ■2.2 


1.8 


U    ill  1.6 


O^ 


*.^**' 

'^.^'» 

■> 


0^2 


^\^ 


■%-^ 


«^"^ 


l\ 


92 


THE    DOMINION    OP    CANADA. 


m 


S*h 


proportion  to  the  population,  as  ascertained  every  ten 
years,  as  the  number  65  bears  to  the  number  of  the 
population  of  Quebec.^ 

Thus  it  may  be  noticed  that  in  the  two  provinces 
especially  subject  to  the  French  and  Catholic  influence, 
the  representation  in  the  Dv-^minion  Parliament  is  greater 
than  in  the  other  provinces  and  sufficient  to  have  a  pre- 
ponderating vfeight  in  all  matters  that  come  before  it. 

The  Queen  has  concurrent  power  over  all  matters 
within  the  legislative  jurisdiction  of  the  Dominion 
government,  since  she  is  not  divested  of  her  preroga- 
tive powers,  and  the  Dominion  government,  in  turn, 
over  matters  in  the  Provincial  government.  But  with- 
in certain  limits  each  legislature  is  supreme. 

The  people  of  Canada  are  thus  subject  to  the  mother 
country  through  three  legislative  bodies.  The  lowest 
body  is  that  of  the  province,  headed  by  a  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  whose  acts  can  be  vetoed  by  the  higher 
bodies. 

England,  therefore,  has  great  power  over  Canada,  for 
although  she  allows  the  government  to  regulate  all 
matters  between  the  provinces,  as  well  as  those  per- 
taining to  its  own  internal  affairs,  she  will  treat  with 
the  provinces  only  through  the  Dominion  Parliament, 
which  in  turn  must  direct  its  communications  to  the 
Crown  through  the  Colonial  Office. 

If  the  present  status  of  Canada  should  change,  it  is 
generally  agreed  upon  that  it  will  take  one  of  these 
three  destinies : 

1.  Imperial  Federation. 

2.  Independence  and  a  new  American  Kepublic. 

3.  Annexation  to  the  United  States. 

IMPERIAL   FEDERATION. 

The  tendency  of  colonies  has  been  to  overcome  their 
sense  of  inferiority  by  resenting  the  legal  exercise  of 

1.  British  North  America  Act,  sec.  61. 


n 


IMPERIAL  FEDERATION. 


93 


imperial  powers.  After  attaining  a  mature  growth,  like 
the  child  become  a  man,  they  desire  to  leave  the  protec- 
tion of  the  mother  country  and  assume  sovereign 
powers. 

To  counteract  this  tendency,  and  secure  a  closer 
political  union  between  England  and  her  colonies^ 
statesmen  have  long  advocated  a  plan  of  Imperial 
Federation. 

By  this  system  they  propose  to  establish  on  a  firm 
basis  the  relation  which  a  dependency  bears  to  the 
centre  of  power  in  the  empire,  and  so  define  and  regu- 
late reciprocal  obligations  that  distant  and  powerful 
colonies  can  be  maintained  as  parts  of  one  great 
empire.  Thus,  as  the  force  of  gravitation  can  hold  the 
far  oif  planets  in  subjection  to  the  sun  as  the  centre  of 
one  system,  this  Imperial  Federation  would  unite 
states  independent  in  their  internal  affairs  into  one 
great  nation. 

A  new  body  would  be  formed  for  imperial  matters, 
and  the  colonies  would  enjoy  independent  legislative 
povrers  in  all  matters  of  self-government. 

The  colonies  would  be  on  the  same  footing  and  free 
to  act  within  the  scope  of  their  prescribed  powers,  but 
all  subject  to  the  decision  of  a  common  supreme 
tribunal.  They  would  be  immed'  -tely  interested  in 
all  international  affairs  and  have  a  power  of  voting  on 
all  such  questions.  War,  tiiorefore,  could  not  be 
declared  by  England  without  the  consent  of  her 
colonies,  thus  avoiding  the  often  repeated  complaint  of 
colonies  that  they  are  compelled  to  assist  in  wars  in 
which  they  have  no  interest.  England  could  not 
impose  taxes  without  their  consent. 

Imperial  rights  would  be  exercised  to  maintain  the 
unity  of  the  empire,  and  promote  the  common  interests 
of  all  its  widespread  possessions.  There  would  be 
an  universal  military  organization,  and  an  universal 
commercial  union  establishing  free  trade  between 
distant  parts  of  the  empire. 


lii!  ■ 


94 


THE    DOMINION   OF   CANADA. 


A  i 


H  t 


«»i: 


This  theory  of  Imperial  Federation  is  not  one 
peculiar  to  modern  colonial  reformers,  but  is  the  out- 
come of  ideas  long  cherished  by  those  who  believe  in 
self-government.  If  we  trace  back  through  the  events 
of  colonial  history  of  the  United  States,  and  examine 
carefully  the  charters  granting  lands  in  America,  we 
shall  see  that  the  colonies  enjoyed  local  autonomy 
subject  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Crown. 

In  the  event  of  Imperial  Federation  the  present 
colonies  would  tend  to  become  sovereignties,  and 
representatives  in  the  federal  congress  would  be 
partly  ambassadorial.  The  representation  from  distant 
states  with  democratic  ideas  would  tend  to  abolish  the 
English  hereditary  nobility.  Thus  it  is  a  question 
whether  England  would  lose  or  gain  power  by  this 
scheme. 

The  advocates  of  this  system  belong  to  both  parties 
in  England,  and  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  its 
practicability,  are  bound  together  in  a  society  called  the 
Federation  League.  Sir  John  Macdonald,  the  Premier 
of  Canada,  is  a  member,  and  has  for  his  associates  a 
wealthy  class  who  think  that  by  this  method  the 
annexation  or  independence  of  Canada  would  be 
retarded. 

The  Marquis  of  Lome,  in  a  work  entitled  "  Im- 
perial Federation,"  says : 

"  Does  not  disintegration  loom  in  the  future,  and  is 
not  the  independence  of  Australia,  and  the  annexation 
of  Canada,  a  result  sure  to  follow  the  local  freedom 
practiced  throughout  the  Anglo-Saxon  Empire  ?" 


INDEPENDENCE. 


The  recent  growth  of  nations  has  been  toward  dem- 
ocracy. In  former  times  the  people  never  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  social  condition  different  from  that  in 
which  they  were  born,  but  as  intelligence  spread  and 
knowledge  became  general,  the  principles  of  action  in 


INDEPENDENCE. 


95 


in 


economics,  education  and  religion  advanced  toward 
democracy. 

The  people  have  gradually  learned  that  they  are 
sovereign  and  constitute  the  state.  Political  indepen- 
dence, therefore,  has  raised  itself  from  the  relics  of  re- 
ligious superstition  and  feudalism.  Since  the  separa- 
tion of  the  American  colonies  from  the  mother  country 
in  which  Canada  refused  to  join,  struggling  nations 
have  turned  to  the  example  of  the  North  American 
Republic  for  political  reform. 

England  may  expect  the  separation  of  all  her  colo- 
nies. Her  course  in  regard  to  them  has  been  a  bene- 
ficial one,  but  not  made  for  ever.  The  people  of  the 
colonies  can  move  an  overwhelming  preponderence  of 
power  against  existing  institution-!  They  are  thous- 
ands of  miles  from  the  mother  country  and  almost 
independent  in  their  self-government.  Thus  the  only 
tie  that  binds  is  the  military  and  diplomatic  protection 
of  England.     Does  Canada  need  this  protection  ? 

The  confederation  has  proved  of  great  benefit  to  the 
country  in  creating  an  almost  national  existence,  and 
was  brought  about  by  Canadian  statesmen.  It  was  p. 
step  toward  Imperial  Federation,  since  in  all  matters 
concerning  their  interests  England  consults  Canada, 
and  has  appointed  on  such  commissions,  as  that  of  the 
fisheries  men  who  were  especially  interested  in  the 
promotion  of  Canadian  affairs.  Then,  the  idea  of  fed- 
eration has  been,  in  a  small  degree,  cairied  out  by 
Canada  having  a  resident  in  London,  known  as  High 
Commissioner,  who  acts  in  accordance  with  his  instruc- 
tions from  the  Dominion  government.  The  first  com- 
missioner was  Sir  Alexander  Gait,  who  was  followed 
by  Sir  Charles  Tupper. 

England  has  often  assured  Canada  that  she  will  pro- 
tect its  interests  in  the  negotiations  of  all  treaties,  and 
has  evinced  a  desire  to  retain  only  the  treaty-making 
power.  This,  then,  is  intended  as  a  link  of  connection 
whereby  England,  through  honor  and  affection  may 


fir 


96 


THE    DOMINION   OF   CANADA. 


continue  her  protection,  at  the  same  time  allowing  the 
Dominion  Parliament  almost  sovereign  powers. 

Canada  has  passed  through  the  stages  of  develop- 
ment usual  in  all  nations  from  the  despotism  under 
the  old  regime  to  the  constitutional  period,  when  the 
struggle  between  the  monarch  and  the  people  took 
place,  which  led  to  the  present  self-government.  It  is 
but  a  short  step  forward  to  complete  independence. 
Whether  this  will  occur  in  the  near  future  is  &  question 
which  must  be  determined  by  the  majority  of  the 
Canadian  people,  but  political  sentiment  is  divided 
between  the  Conservatives,  Liberals  and  French  Na- 
tionalists. 

The  Conservatives  are  the  old  Canadians  who  still 
cling  to  the  British  flag,  because  under  its  protection 
they  feel  secure.  They  are  the  wealthier  class  of  the 
population  and  compose  the  society  immediately  out- 
side of  the  royal  and  aristocratic  retinue  attached  to 
the  Governor-General. 

He  is  the  representative  of  royalty  and  in  his 
person  brings  forcibly  to  the  minds  ot  the  Conserva- 
tives their  allegiance  to  the  English  Crown,  which  he 
represents. 

The  Conservatives,  headed  by  the  old  and  beloved 
Premier,  Sir  John  Macdonold,  hold  the  most  important 
offices,  and  therefore  do  not  want  the  present  condition 
of  affairs  disturbed.  The  Orangemen  must  also  be 
classed  in  this  party,  although  many  of  them  since  the 
allowancv.^  of  the  Jesuits'  Estates  Bill  have  gone  over 
to  the  Liberals. 

The  Liberals  comprise  the  "Young  Canada"  ele- 
ment of  the  population,  and  instead  of  being  British 
colonists,  would  prefer  to  say :  "  We  are  Canadians  " 
or  possibly,  "  We  are  Americans." 

There  is  no  aristocracy  in  Canada  that  is  regarded 
by  the  people  as  constituting  their  natural  superiors 
and  rulers,  and  the  Liberals  are  asking  the  question : 
"  Why  not  elect  our  own  Governor  and  Senators  ? '" 


INDEPENDENCE. 


97 


'er 


?» 


led 

lors 


Expressions  are  now  frequently  used  which  would 
have  been  regarded  as  hik^  treason  before  the  Union 
Act.  The  desire  for  independence  or  a  national 
change  has  been  admitted,  even  by  those  newspapers 
which  work  in  the  interest  of  the  government.  The 
London  Free  Press,  the  Windsor  Review,  the  St. 
Catharine  Star,  the  Toronto  Mail  dii\(\.  numerous  other 
papers  see  indications  of  independence. 

Since  the  organization  of  a  national  i^arty,  whose 
motto  was  "  Canada  First,"  the  spirit  of  national  inde- 
pendence has  rapidly  increased.  The  young  Liberal 
Clubs  in  all  parts  of  the  Dominion  are  increasing  their 
memberships  even  from  the  ranks  of  the  Conserva- 
tives. The  issue  of  independence  has  been  frequently 
brought  forward,  and  elections  have  taken  place  of 
candidates  who  were  in  favor  of  independence. 

There  has  been  exhibited  in  Windsor,  Ontario,  a 
proposed  Canadian  flag  of  dark  blue  with  a  red  square 
in  the  corner,  in  which  is  displayed  a  white  beaver 
representing  the  Northwest  territories,  while  in  the 
blue  field  are  seven  stars  representing  the  provinces. 

The  French  Nationalists  constitute  a  third  and  in- 
dependent party,  and  side  with  that  party  in  all  politi- 
cal questions  who  will  enable  them  to  retain  their 
ethnic  and  confessional  autonomy.  Those  misunder- 
standings and  differences  which  the  inhabitants  of 
Quebec  have  had  so  long  with  the  Anglo-Canadians 
have  not  been  dispelled  by  confederation.  The 
growth  of  empire  in  the  Northwest,  and  the  ethnic  in- 
fluence which  always  existed  in  their  favor  among  the 
Half-breeds  has  raised  new  hopes.  They  have  long 
maintained  a  French  Catholic  province  on  an  English 
Protestant  continent,  and  hope  ere  long  to  see  it  pro- 
moted into  a  nation.  The  leading  papers  in  Quebec 
have  frequently  expressed  this  desire  of  the  French 
Canadians,  and  in  a  recent  article  La  Verite  says : 

"  Let  us  say  it  boldly — the  ideal  of  the  French 
Canadian  people  is  not  the  ideal  of  the  other  races 


08 


THE   DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


I  : 


which  to-day  inhabit  the  land  our  fathers  subdued  for 
Christian  civilization.  Our  ideal  is  the  formation  here, 
in  this  corner  of  the  earth  watered  by  the  blood  of  our 
heroes,  of  a  nation  which  shall  perform  on  this  con- 
tinent, the  part  France  has  played  so  lonff  in  Europe. 
Our  aspiration  is  to  found  a  nation  which,  socially, 
shall  profess  the  Catholic  faith  and  speak  the  French 
language.  That  is  not  and  cannot  be  the  aspiration  of 
the  other  races.  To  say,  then,  that  all  the  groups 
which  constitute  confederation  are  animated  by  one 
and  the  same  aspiration  is  to  utter  a  sounding  phrase 
without  political  or  historical  meaning.  For  us  the 
present  form  of  government  is  not  and  cannot  be  the 
last  word  of  our  national  existence.  It  is  merely  a 
road  toward  the  goal  we  have  in  view.  Let  us  never 
lose  sight  of  our  national  destiny ;  rather  let  us  con- 
stantly prepare  ourselves  to  fulfill  it  worthily  at  the 
hour  decreed  by  Providence,  which  circumstances  shall 
reveal  to  us." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Anglo-Canadians  see  that  if 
they  would  establish  a  great  nation  they  must  abolish 
French  institutions,  the  levying  of  tithes,  and  the 
maintenance  of  parochial  schools  by  public  money. 

These  ethnic  and  religious  differences  retard  the 
growth  of  independence  and  act  as  a  drawback  to 
annexation,  for  annexation  is  not  likely  to  take  place 
until  after  independence. 

Since  Brazil  has  changed  its  government,  and  its 
cle  facto  existence  has  been  acknowledged,  British 
America  is  the  only  country  on  the  hemisphere  not 
a  I'e  public. 

England's  right  to  govern  Canada  is  based  wholly 
on  the  presumption  that  it  is  not  able  to  govern  itself. 
Is  it;  not  proper,  then,  that  she  should  cease  to  play  the 
part  of  a  parent,  by  withdrawing  that  protection  for 
which  Ireland  as  well  as  Great  Britain  must  pay  ? 
Her  indirect  liabilities  through  keeping  the  Canadian 
connection  are  enormous,  since  their  commercial  policies 


ANNEXATION, 


99 


are  at  right  angles,  and  England  is  prevented  from 
entering  into  whatever  relations  she  pleases  with  the 
United  States. 

When  Canada  is  free  and  exists  under  a  policy  of 
peace  and  free  commerce  it  will  be  a  matter  of  history 
as  to  her  ultimate  destiny.  But  we  can  only  conjec- 
ture that,  after  the  French  influence  has  been  over- 
come by  an  increased  population,  the  greater  nation 
will  absorb  the  smaller  on  the  North  American 
continent. 

ANNEXATION. 


its 


the 

n 

or 


lies 


Although  Canada  is  practically  sovereign — a  **  semi- 
sovereignty" — it  has  not  the  power  to  discharge  external 
functions,  and  is  not  a  state  in  an  international  posi- 
tion. Therefore,  in  exercising  power  given  by  the  con- 
stitution, whereby  "new  states  may  be  admitted  by 
the  Congress  into  the  Union, "^  it  is  necessary  for  us  to 
consider  our  international  relations  with  England. 

The  methods  by  which  annexation  may  be  brought 
about  are : 

1.  Conquest  by  the  United  States. 

2.  Independence  of  Canada  and  cession  of  its  terri- 
tory by  its  people. 

3.  Cession  of  Canada  by  its  people  with  the  consent 
of  Parliament  and  the  Crown. 

4.  Treaty  arrangement  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  and  the  consent  of  the  Canadian 
people. 

Behind  the  constitution  there  is  a  right  to  acquire 
territory  by  conquest,  which  is  "an  incident  of  sov- 
ereignty. "  *  This  is  a  power  that  has  always  existed, 
but  in  the  present  development  of  international  law* 
and  human  rights,  it  is  only  exercised  in  the  subjection 
of  uncivilized  people  and  semi-states. 

1.  Article  4,  Sec.  3. 

2.  8  Story  on  Constitution,  159. 


100 


THE    DOMINION   OP   CANADA. 


■'ll 


The  interference  of  the  United  States  in  Canadian 
affairs  would  probably  bring  about  a  war  with  Eng- 
land, but  other  nations  would  not  be  likely  to  inter- 
fere in  a  movement  in  which  they  are  not  concerned, 
whereby  the  United  States  would  j^-e^are  the  v/ay  for 
that  certain  future  advance  in  population  and  national 
prosperity. 
C  /  If  it  had  been  our  policy  to  conqu0r,  Canada  would 
have  belonged  to  the  United  States  long  ago,  since 
statesmen  have  often  referred  to  the  advisability  of 
annexation.  Mr.  Clay,  in  a  speech  on  the  occupati(»n 
of  West  Florida,  said:  "I  am  not,  sir,  in  favor  of 
cherishing  the  passion  of  conquest,  but  I  must  be 
permitted  to  conclude  by  declaring  my  hope  to  see, 
ere  long,  the  New  United  States  (if  you  will  allow  me 
the  expression),  embracing  not  only  the  old  thirteen 
states  but  the  entire  country  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
including  East  Florida,  and  some  of  the  territories  to 
the  north  of  us  also." 

It  is  the  peculiar  duty  of  a  Republic  to  recognize 
the  rights  of  other  peoples,  and  so  endeavor  to  main- 
tain them. 

Tlie  second  method  is  very  simple,  for  as  an  inde- 
pendent state,  Canada  could  rightfully  cede  her  whole 
territory  and  unite  her  government  with  us  without 
the  interference  of  any  foreign  power. 

In  treating  the  third  method  by  which  annexation 
might  be  accomplished,  we  must  consider  that  Canada 
has  not  the  power  of  making  treaties  v;ith  foreign 
states,  which  is  an  incident  to  sovereignty.  But  it 
might  appoint  a  committee  to  treat  with  the  United 
States,  with  the  positive  or  tacit  consent  of  the  mother 
country,  the  conclusions  of  which  might  be  accepted 
by  th*?  sovereign  through  a  treaty.  This  method  would 
depend  upon  the  willingness  of  England  to  permit 
Canada  to  go  forth  from  her  protection,  and  differs 
fi'om  the  fourth  method  in  the  source  from  which  the 
proposals  for  annexation  seem  to  eminate.    It  is  found- 


ANNEXATION. 


101 


m 
la 


ed  on  the  theory  that  the  people  constitute  the  state 
and  that  from  them  i^  ist  proceed  any  desire  for  a 
change. 

The  negotiation  of  treaties  between  sovereigns,  is  a 
usual  method  of  annexation,  as  was  demonstrated  in 
the  annexation  of  Schleswig-Hol stein  to  Prussia,  of  the 
Neopolitan  Provinces  to  Italy,  and  of  Savoy  and  Nice 
to  France.  In  all  these  cases  the  plebiscite  of  the  peo- 
ple was  obtained  before  the  cessions  were  complete.^ 

If  England  had  the  power  to  barter  or  give  Canada 
without  the  will  of  the  people,  she  might  cede  the  ter- 
ritory to  China  or  Russia ;  and  thus  a  great  social  dis- 
turbance would  occur  through  difference  in  unities. 
Whereas  the  United  States  is  the  only  country  to 
which  Canada  could  properly  be  annexed. 

Now,  as  to  the  organization  of  the  new  government 
aod  relations.  It  would  not  be  necessary  to  obtain  the 
consent  of  each  state  in  the  Union  for  the  admission  of 
Canada,  as  long  as  there  were  a  majority  in  Congress 
in  favor  of  the  union.  This  was  demonstrated  in  the 
annexation  of  Texas.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Domin- 
ion could  not  cede  the  territory  without  the  consent  of 
the  people  of  each  province,  for  this  would  be  a  viola- 
tion of  the  principle  which  we  have  just  seen.  For  the 
same  reason,  England  has  been  unable  to  join  New- 
foundland to  the  Dominion. 

Therefore,  any  province  might  declare  its  independ- 
ence and  unite  its  government  with  us ;  but  it  would 
be  a  violation  of  dejure  rights  under  the  Dominion,  as 
the  provinces  have  not  sovereignty  or  the  power  to  se- 
cede. This  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  un- 
easiness of  Nova  Scotia  since  confederation.  This 
province  was  the  first  to  propose  the  new  government, 
but  it  soon  desired  to  withdraw  from  a  union  with  its 
undesirable  neighbors — a  procedure  which  it  found  im- 
possible."   Lately  this  desire  for  a  change  has  clearly 


1.  •*  InternatUl  Law,"  Woolaey,  App.  II. 

2.  Hansard,  808,  p.  1723. 


^>- 


102 


THE    DOMINION   OP   CANADA. 


^4 


shown  itself,  nor  would  it  be  surprising  if  a  proposi  'on 
for  annexation  should  come  from  this  English  province. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territory  would  be  ad- 
mitted according  to  the  principle  of  our  federal  consti- 
tution, into  all  the  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States.  The  rights  and  obligations  which  belonged  to 
each  province  before  the  union  would  be  binding  upon 
them  or  the  government  at  Washington.  Thus  the  ae])t 
of  Canada  would  be  assumed  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment, apportioned  among  the  provinces  as  it  was  before 
the  Dominion  Act,  or  divided  according  to  relative  pop- 
ulation. The  annexed  territory  would  retain  all  its  pri- 
vate rights  of  property  in  the  soil,^  and  the  public 
buildings  woulcl  belong  to  the  province  in  which  they 
are  situated. 

Having  discussed  the  methods  of  annexation  the 
next  question  is  its  practicability.  On  casting  a  retro- 
spective eye  on  the  progress  of  Canada  we  cannot  but 
be  struck  with  the  difficulties  it  has  had  to  encounter 
before  attaining  its  present  position  on  the  threshold  of 
a  new  existence.  It  is  governed  by  institutions  and 
laws  similar  to  our  own,  and  inhabited  by  a  people, 
many  of  whom  have  a  like  origin,  education  and  reli- 
gion with  ourselves.  But  we  have  seen  differences 
between  the  populations  which  can  only  be  gradually 
€liminated  by  social  fusion.  The  question  of  religion 
in  state  and  common  schools  would  be  a  source  of  dis- 
cussion and  controversy,  since  we  are  apt  to  maintain 
our  belief  in  non-sectarianism  as  a  policy  superior  to 
that  of  Canada. 

We  must  not  look  to  the  provinces  of  Quebec,  On. 
iario  and  those  on  the  Atlantic,  whose  future  can  ouiy 
be  prophesied  by  the  historic  past,  for  a  beneficial 
union  with  us,  but  to  the  wonderfully  fertile  and 
sparsely  populated  country  extending  to  the  Pacific. 
The  west  and  northwest  are  receiving  a  tide  of  immi- 
gration which  must,   through  similarity  in  ethnical 

1.  1  Wheaton,  279. 


ANNEXATION. 


loa 


character  develop  social  institutions  suitable  for  an 
intimate  alliance  with  us. 

nn  JJ'%-^'"-^^  .''^  ^^^'  ^«^»"«n  is  contiguous,  and 
annexation  if  not  necessary,  would  at  least  permit  the 
extension  of  our  commerce  with  perfect  freedom  and 
security.  Its  numerous  harbors,  large  rivers  and  com 
munications  connect  its  people  with  our  own,  and,  by 
the  representative  system  and  the  avoidr.nce  of  sec 
tioD  prejudices  and  factions,  the  Umted  States 
tho.       of  vast  extent,  might  with  perfect  harmony 

Republtr  ^  ^""^        '''*''  ''''  ^""^^^  ^"^'^^  American 


Mi 


H: 


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